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Respiratory Health Effects of Exposure to Ambient Particulate Matter and Bioaerosols

Savannah M. Mack, Amy K. Madl, Kent E. Pinkerton

10.1002/cphy.c180040

Source: Volume 10, Issue 1, January 2020

Published online: December 2019

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

Researchers have been studying the respiratory health effects of ambient air pollution for more than 70 years. While air pollution as a whole can include gaseous, solid, and liquid constituents, this article focuses only on the solid and liquid fractions, termed particulate matter (PM). Although PM may contain anthropogenic, geogenic, and/or biogenic fractions, in this article, particles that originate from microbial, fungal, animal, or plant sources are distinguished from PM as bioaerosols. Many advances have been made toward understanding which particle and exposure characteristics most influence deposition and clearance processes in the respiratory tract. These characteristics include particle size, shape, charge, and composition as well as the exposure concentration and dose rate. Exposure to particles has been directly associated with the exacerbation and, under certain circumstances, onset of respiratory disease. The circumstances of exposure leading to disease are dependent on stressors such as human activity level and changing particle composition in the environment. Historically, researchers assumed that bioaerosols were too large to be inhaled into the deep lung, and thus, not applicable for study in conjunction with PM2.5 (the 2.5‐μm and below size fraction that can reach the deep lung); however, this concept is beginning to be challenged. While there is extensive research on the health effects of PM and bioaerosols independent of each other, only limited work has been performed on their coexposure. Studying these two particle types as dual stressors to the respiratory system may aid in more thoroughly understanding the etiology of respiratory injury and disease. © 2020 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 10:1‐20, 2020.

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Figure 1. Figure 1. Simplified schematic of the combined effects of climate, bioaerosols, and particulate matter acting as multiple stressors in the onset of respiratory disease.
Figure 2. Figure 2. Comparison of particle size fractions including particulate matter (PM), bioaerosols and reference particles. Adapted, with permission, from Kaiser J, 2005 66.
Figure 3. Figure 3. Probability of particle deposition in different regions of the respiratory tract. This graph is modeled after an adult exposed to spherical particles with a density of 1000 kg/m3, respiring during light exercise (25 L/min). Adapted, with permission, from Madl AK, et al., 2010 82.
Figure 4. Figure 4. Impaction, sedimentation, interception, diffusion, and electrostatic deposition are the main mechanisms of particle deposition. Impaction and sedimentation are dependent on the inertia of the particle size and shape, whereas diffusion is dependent on the properties of the aerosol and the trumpet effect of the alveolar space. Interception is dependent on an edge of a particle touching the tract surface and thus changing the final particle trajectory. Electrostatic deposition is dependent on particle charge. Adapted, with permission, from Madl AK, et al., 2010 82.
Figure 5. Figure 5. Clearance of particles from the tracheobronchial tree. Mechanisms include (i) sneezing, coughing, and transport of mucin to the nasopharyngeal region where it is swallowed; (ii) direct mucociliary transport of particles up the tracheobronchial tree and subsequent passage to the gastrointestinal tract; (iii) macrophage uptake and transport up the bronchiolar airways or across the alveolar epithelium and clearance through the pulmonary circulation or interstitial lymphatics; and (iv) physicochemical processes, including dissolution, leaching, and physical breakdown of particles. Courtesy of Dr. Patrick J. Haley, Nycomed R&D, Inc., Collegeville, PA, from an original drawing.
Figure 6. Figure 6. Mechanisms of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation due to the intrinsic properties and cellular interactions of particulate matter (PM). PM containing transition metals, free radicals, or pieces of organic bioaerosols can generate ROS intrinsically. PM also interacts with cellular surface proteins and internal cellular components prior to and after phagocytosis. Adapted, with permission, from Madl AK, et al., 2014 83.
Figure 7. Figure 7. Mortality hazard ratio for PM‐related diseases. Abbreviations: LRI, lower respiratory infection; IHD, ischemic heart disease; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Adapted, with permission, from Burnett R, et al., 2018 18.


Figure 1. Simplified schematic of the combined effects of climate, bioaerosols, and particulate matter acting as multiple stressors in the onset of respiratory disease.


Figure 2. Comparison of particle size fractions including particulate matter (PM), bioaerosols and reference particles. Adapted, with permission, from Kaiser J, 2005 66.


Figure 3. Probability of particle deposition in different regions of the respiratory tract. This graph is modeled after an adult exposed to spherical particles with a density of 1000 kg/m3, respiring during light exercise (25 L/min). Adapted, with permission, from Madl AK, et al., 2010 82.


Figure 4. Impaction, sedimentation, interception, diffusion, and electrostatic deposition are the main mechanisms of particle deposition. Impaction and sedimentation are dependent on the inertia of the particle size and shape, whereas diffusion is dependent on the properties of the aerosol and the trumpet effect of the alveolar space. Interception is dependent on an edge of a particle touching the tract surface and thus changing the final particle trajectory. Electrostatic deposition is dependent on particle charge. Adapted, with permission, from Madl AK, et al., 2010 82.


Figure 5. Clearance of particles from the tracheobronchial tree. Mechanisms include (i) sneezing, coughing, and transport of mucin to the nasopharyngeal region where it is swallowed; (ii) direct mucociliary transport of particles up the tracheobronchial tree and subsequent passage to the gastrointestinal tract; (iii) macrophage uptake and transport up the bronchiolar airways or across the alveolar epithelium and clearance through the pulmonary circulation or interstitial lymphatics; and (iv) physicochemical processes, including dissolution, leaching, and physical breakdown of particles. Courtesy of Dr. Patrick J. Haley, Nycomed R&D, Inc., Collegeville, PA, from an original drawing.


Figure 6. Mechanisms of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation due to the intrinsic properties and cellular interactions of particulate matter (PM). PM containing transition metals, free radicals, or pieces of organic bioaerosols can generate ROS intrinsically. PM also interacts with cellular surface proteins and internal cellular components prior to and after phagocytosis. Adapted, with permission, from Madl AK, et al., 2014 83.


Figure 7. Mortality hazard ratio for PM‐related diseases. Abbreviations: LRI, lower respiratory infection; IHD, ischemic heart disease; COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Adapted, with permission, from Burnett R, et al., 2018 18.
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Teaching Material

Savannah M. Mack, Amy K. Madl, Kent E. Pinkerton. Respiratory Health Effects of Exposure to Ambient Particulate Matter and Bioaerosols. Compr Physiol 10: 2020,1-20.

Didactic Synopsis

Major Teaching Points:

*Particulate matter (PM) includes all solid and liquid pollutants. Examples are environmental, anthropogenic and combustion-based particles.

*Bioaerosols are particles originating from microbial, fungal, animal, and plant sources.

*When combined with other stressors (such as bioaerosols), chronic exposure to PM could lead to new onset lung disease.

*Respirable bioaerosol fragments can be found in PM2.5 and PM10.

*Bioaerosol dispersion is dependent on the environment (i.e., the location, weather, and climate).

*Co-exposure of PM and bioaerosols is associated with increased inflammation, lung injury, and disease exacerbation.

*New research on co-exposure to PM and bioaerosols in human populations, cellular and animal models is needed.

Didactic Legends

The following legends to the figures that appear throughout the article are written to be useful for teaching.

Figure 1: Teaching point: the environment has an effect on air pollution and how it subsequently affects respiratory health.

Figure 2: This figure compares the sizes of common bioaerosols and regularly measured and regulated PM fractions.

Figure 3: This figure illustrates where particles land in the respiratory tract based on their diameter.

Figure 4: This figure illustrates the five main mechanisms of particle deposition in the respiratory tract.

Figure 5: Teaching point: ROS can be produced by PM intrinsically, or by PM-cellular interactions.

Figure 6: This figure illustrates the main mechanisms of particle clearance from the respiratory tract.

Figure 7: This figure illustrates the increased hazard of disease mortality with increasing concentrations of PM2.5.

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Article Title: Respiratory Health Effects of Exposure to Ambient Particulate Matter and Bioaerosols
 

How to Cite

Savannah M. Mack, Amy K. Madl, Kent E. Pinkerton. Respiratory Health Effects of Exposure to Ambient Particulate Matter and Bioaerosols. Compr Physiol 2019, 10: 1-20. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c180040