Working Memory - Comprehensive Physiology From Neural Activity to the Sentient Mind

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Working Memory: From Neural Activity to the Sentient Mind

Russell J. Jaffe, Christos Constantinidis

10.1002/cphy.c210005

Source: Volume 11, Issue 4, October 2021

Published online: September 2021

Full Article on Wiley Online Library

Abstract
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Abstract

Working memory (WM) is the ability to maintain and manipulate information in the conscious mind over a timescale of seconds. This ability is thought to be maintained through the persistent discharges of neurons in a network of brain areas centered on the prefrontal cortex, as evidenced by neurophysiological recordings in nonhuman primates, though both the localization and the neural basis of WM has been a matter of debate in recent years. Neural correlates of WM are evident in species other than primates, including rodents and corvids. A specialized network of excitatory and inhibitory neurons, aided by neuromodulatory influences of dopamine, is critical for the maintenance of neuronal activity. Limitations in WM capacity and duration, as well as its enhancement during development, can be attributed to properties of neural activity and circuits. Changes in these factors can be observed through training‐induced improvements and in pathological impairments. WM thus provides a prototypical cognitive function whose properties can be tied to the spiking activity of brain neurons. © 2021 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 11:2547‐2587, 2021.

	Figure 1. (A) Schematic diagram of (A) the Atkinson and Shiffrin model, (B) Baddeley model, and (C) the model we are putting forth here (Jaffe and Constantinidis model). Colored shapes in all schematic diagrams represent short‐term/working memory stages. The prefrontal cortex plays a central role in the maintenance of working memory through activity that reverberates in short‐ and long‐distance loops including the later stages of the sensory pathways that originally transmit sensory information to working memory.
	Figure 2. From single neuron responses to the bump attractor. (A) Schematic illustration of responses of a single neuron to the ODR task for spatial working memory of a stimulus that appears at eight different locations. (B) The population of neurons represents the stimulus location by the bump of activity in the network. Drifts of this activity result in errors. Adapted, with permission, from Constantinidis C, 2016 80.
	Figure 3. Schematic illustration of types of dynamic coding. Two different stimuli may not elicit an overall increase in firing rate during the delay period of working memory tasks (A). Their identity may still be decoded based on the pattern of spikes of individual neurons, which may be separable for different stimuli (B). Furthermore, the pattern of activity of individual neurons may evolve dynamically in time, that is, different neurons reach maximum activity at different time points during the trial, resulting in different trajectories in state space (C).
	Figure 4. Activity silent mechanisms. (A,B) Schematic demonstration of the phenomenon of match suppression: a modulation of a stimulus firing rate depending on a previous stimulus, which does not depend on persistent spiking over the time interval between the two stimuli. (C) The synaptic model of working memory. Utilization and availability of synaptic resources (e.g., calcium concentration) modulate the magnitude of the postsynaptic potential generated by spikes elicited when a stimulus is presented for the first time, and when the same stimulus is presented for the second time. Adapted, with permission, from Mongillo G, et al., 2008 313. (D) Schematic illustration of serial bias in working memory. The location of the previous stimulus influences the memory of the current stimulus location. (E) During the inter‐trial interval (dotted line), firing rate no longer represents the previous stimulus and the neuron exhibits no selectivity for the location of the preceding stimulus. However, this information continues to be maintained by synaptic mechanisms and when the next trial begins, selectivity for the preceding stimulus re‐emerges. The interaction of this reactivated bump and the bump of activity caused by the cue appearance causes a slight deviation (bias) which is evident in the pattern of behavioral performance. Adapted, with permission, from Barbosa J, et al., 2020 23.
	Figure 5. Division of labor model. Selectivity of pyramidal neurons (P) and three types of interneurons: parvalbumin (PV), VIP, and somatostatin (SST) are shown. Insets on top are meant to illustrate that red‐colored neurons on the left side of the figure are driven by a stimulus at the upper left of the screen, the 135° location, whereas blue‐colored neurons on the right side of the figure are maximally activated by a stimulus in the lower left, 225° location. Excitatory synapses connect pyramidal neurons with similar preferences in the delay period that follows a stimulus in the upper left. Heat maps representing the activity of different neurons are plotted by preference for stimulus location (y‐axis), as a function of time (x‐axis). Adapted, with permission, from Li S, et al., 2020 263.
	Figure 6. Stimulus selectivity along the dorso‐ventral and anterior‐posterior axes of the PFC before and after training. (A) Firing rate and selectivity of dorsal prefrontal neurons at different positions along the anterior‐posterior axis, before and after training. Reused, with permission, from Riley MR, et al. 2018 395, Licensed Under CC BY‐4.0. (B) Schematic illustration of spatial and object selectivity across the PFC. Reused, with permission, from Constantinidis C, 2018 82. Licensed Under CC BY‐4.0.
	Figure 7. Local organization of the prefrontal cortex. (A) No retinotopic map of visual space is present in dorsal posterior PFC, whose neurons display strong selectivity for space. Adapted, with permission, from Leavitt ML, et al., 2018 252. (B) Some local organization and orderly progression of receptive fields are revealed in tangential electrode penetrations in the principal sulcus. Adapted, with permission, from Arnsten AF, 2013 6. (C) Organization of activity across the depth of the PFC. Cue responses predominate in middle layers; delay period activity in upper layers; response activity in deeper layers of the PFC. Adapted, with permission, from Markowitz DA, et al., 2015 287.
	Figure 8. Schematic illustration of a cross‐modal WM task. The monkey needs to remember the frequency of either a tactile or auditory stimulus and compare it with a stimulus of either modality. Right panels represent schematically the responses of a single neuron in the presupplementary motor area for an auditory stimulus (purple bar) followed by a tactile stimulus (blue bar), or vice versa (bottom). Responses of the neuron during the delay period were modulated monotonically depending on the frequency of the stimulus, adhering to the same monotonic code of firing rate as a function of frequency for both the remembered auditory and tactile stimuli. Adapted, with permission, from Constantinidis C, 2016 76; Vergara J, et al. 2016 489.
	Figure 9. Properties of working memory capacity in human subjects. (A) Change detection paradigm. Subjects need to maintain in memory a set of colored squares and report if a second display was identical to the first or not. (B) Performance on the task declines as a function of set size. (C) Mean contralateral delay activity measured from posterior EEG electrodes as a function of elements in the array. Peak CDA amplitude predicts capacity (vertical) line. Adapted, with permission, from Fukuda K, et al., 2010 53.
	Figure 10. Neural activity in capacity tasks. (A) Predicted model of working memory capacity in the context of the bump attractor. Multiple stimuli are encoded at the beginning of the trial. An item that decays, fails to be recalled at the end of the trial. (B) Capacity curves of monkeys. (C) WM capacity task. (D) Population firing rate for displays with different numbers of stimuli. (E) Average firing rate during the cue and delay period. Adapted, with permission, from Tang H, et al., 2019 475.
	Figure 11. Drift and decay processes. Predictions of (A), the bump attractor model suggesting that drift is the main source of imprecision in working memory vs. (B), a model where the bump of activity decays. (C) For the bump attractor, but not the decaying bump model, the tuning curve bias computed from trials with clockwise versus counterclockwise deviations becomes increasingly positive through the delay. (D) Only for the bump attractor model, spike counts in response to flank stimuli correlated with behavioral deviations in the direction of the neuron's preferred cue as delay progressed. (E) For the bump attractor model, but not the decaying bump model, Fano factors computed separately for trials when a flank stimulus was presented are larger when considering inaccurate trials with large behavioral deviations (solid line) as compared to accurate trials (dashed line). (F) Only for the bump attractor model, neuron pair noise correlation is negative for those pairs with dissimilar tuning, when responding to a middle flank stimulus. Modified, with permission, from Wimmer K, et al., 2014 251.
	Figure 12. Rodent WM. (A) Patterns of activation of mouse working memory, recorded from the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). (B) Individual neurons are typically active over a short period. (C) Mean z‐scored firing rate of delay‐elevated units identified after clustering into six groups based on temporal correlation in firing rates from dark red (earliest) to purple (latest). Approximately 30% of all mPFC neurons in the dataset exhibited significant delay‐elevated activity (inset). (D) Behavioral effects of inactivation of MD‐to‐mPFC terminals. (E) Behavioral effects of inactivation of mPFC‐to‐MD terminals. (A‐E) Reused, with permission, from Bolkan SS, et al., 2017 38. (F) Behavioral effects of inactivation of different mPFC interneuron populations during an auditory working memory task. Modified, with permission, from Kamigaki T, 2017 218.
	Figure 13. WM Development. (A) Behavioral improvement of human working memory in adolescence. Adapted, with permission, from Simmonds DJ, et al., 2017 442. (B) Behavioral improvement of monkey WM in adolescence. (C) Persistent discharges in the adolescent and (D), adult PFC in the oculomotor delayed response task. (E,F). Activity in the adolescent and adult PFC in the distractor task. (B‐F) Reused, with permission, from Zhou X, et al., 2016 541.
	Figure 14. Effects of training. (A) Anatomical MRI of the monkey lateral prefrontal cortex with anterior/posterior and dorsal/ventral subdivisions indicated relative to the principle and arcuate sulci. (B) Mean firing rate of neurons recorded in these subdivisions in monkeys both before and after they were trained to perform spatial WM tasks. Gray bars represent stimulus presentations. Data are shown separately for each prefrontal region. (A,B) Reused, with permission, from Riley MR, et al., 2018 395. (C) Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis for recordings from low‐performance and high‐performance sessions, as monkeys were trained in a multi‐stimulus WM task. Reused, with permission, from Tang H, et al., 2019 475.

Figure 1. (A) Schematic diagram of (A) the Atkinson and Shiffrin model, (B) Baddeley model, and (C) the model we are putting forth here (Jaffe and Constantinidis model). Colored shapes in all schematic diagrams represent short‐term/working memory stages. The prefrontal cortex plays a central role in the maintenance of working memory through activity that reverberates in short‐ and long‐distance loops including the later stages of the sensory pathways that originally transmit sensory information to working memory.

Figure 2. From single neuron responses to the bump attractor. (A) Schematic illustration of responses of a single neuron to the ODR task for spatial working memory of a stimulus that appears at eight different locations. (B) The population of neurons represents the stimulus location by the bump of activity in the network. Drifts of this activity result in errors. Adapted, with permission, from Constantinidis C, 2016 80.

Figure 3. Schematic illustration of types of dynamic coding. Two different stimuli may not elicit an overall increase in firing rate during the delay period of working memory tasks (A). Their identity may still be decoded based on the pattern of spikes of individual neurons, which may be separable for different stimuli (B). Furthermore, the pattern of activity of individual neurons may evolve dynamically in time, that is, different neurons reach maximum activity at different time points during the trial, resulting in different trajectories in state space (C).

Figure 4. Activity silent mechanisms. (A,B) Schematic demonstration of the phenomenon of match suppression: a modulation of a stimulus firing rate depending on a previous stimulus, which does not depend on persistent spiking over the time interval between the two stimuli. (C) The synaptic model of working memory. Utilization and availability of synaptic resources (e.g., calcium concentration) modulate the magnitude of the postsynaptic potential generated by spikes elicited when a stimulus is presented for the first time, and when the same stimulus is presented for the second time. Adapted, with permission, from Mongillo G, et al., 2008 313. (D) Schematic illustration of serial bias in working memory. The location of the previous stimulus influences the memory of the current stimulus location. (E) During the inter‐trial interval (dotted line), firing rate no longer represents the previous stimulus and the neuron exhibits no selectivity for the location of the preceding stimulus. However, this information continues to be maintained by synaptic mechanisms and when the next trial begins, selectivity for the preceding stimulus re‐emerges. The interaction of this reactivated bump and the bump of activity caused by the cue appearance causes a slight deviation (bias) which is evident in the pattern of behavioral performance. Adapted, with permission, from Barbosa J, et al., 2020 23.

Figure 5. Division of labor model. Selectivity of pyramidal neurons (P) and three types of interneurons: parvalbumin (PV), VIP, and somatostatin (SST) are shown. Insets on top are meant to illustrate that red‐colored neurons on the left side of the figure are driven by a stimulus at the upper left of the screen, the 135° location, whereas blue‐colored neurons on the right side of the figure are maximally activated by a stimulus in the lower left, 225° location. Excitatory synapses connect pyramidal neurons with similar preferences in the delay period that follows a stimulus in the upper left. Heat maps representing the activity of different neurons are plotted by preference for stimulus location (y‐axis), as a function of time (x‐axis). Adapted, with permission, from Li S, et al., 2020 263.

Figure 6. Stimulus selectivity along the dorso‐ventral and anterior‐posterior axes of the PFC before and after training. (A) Firing rate and selectivity of dorsal prefrontal neurons at different positions along the anterior‐posterior axis, before and after training. Reused, with permission, from Riley MR, et al. 2018 395, Licensed Under CC BY‐4.0. (B) Schematic illustration of spatial and object selectivity across the PFC. Reused, with permission, from Constantinidis C, 2018 82. Licensed Under CC BY‐4.0.

Figure 7. Local organization of the prefrontal cortex. (A) No retinotopic map of visual space is present in dorsal posterior PFC, whose neurons display strong selectivity for space. Adapted, with permission, from Leavitt ML, et al., 2018 252. (B) Some local organization and orderly progression of receptive fields are revealed in tangential electrode penetrations in the principal sulcus. Adapted, with permission, from Arnsten AF, 2013 6. (C) Organization of activity across the depth of the PFC. Cue responses predominate in middle layers; delay period activity in upper layers; response activity in deeper layers of the PFC. Adapted, with permission, from Markowitz DA, et al., 2015 287.

Figure 8. Schematic illustration of a cross‐modal WM task. The monkey needs to remember the frequency of either a tactile or auditory stimulus and compare it with a stimulus of either modality. Right panels represent schematically the responses of a single neuron in the presupplementary motor area for an auditory stimulus (purple bar) followed by a tactile stimulus (blue bar), or vice versa (bottom). Responses of the neuron during the delay period were modulated monotonically depending on the frequency of the stimulus, adhering to the same monotonic code of firing rate as a function of frequency for both the remembered auditory and tactile stimuli. Adapted, with permission, from Constantinidis C, 2016 76; Vergara J, et al. 2016 489.

Figure 9. Properties of working memory capacity in human subjects. (A) Change detection paradigm. Subjects need to maintain in memory a set of colored squares and report if a second display was identical to the first or not. (B) Performance on the task declines as a function of set size. (C) Mean contralateral delay activity measured from posterior EEG electrodes as a function of elements in the array. Peak CDA amplitude predicts capacity (vertical) line. Adapted, with permission, from Fukuda K, et al., 2010 53.

Figure 10. Neural activity in capacity tasks. (A) Predicted model of working memory capacity in the context of the bump attractor. Multiple stimuli are encoded at the beginning of the trial. An item that decays, fails to be recalled at the end of the trial. (B) Capacity curves of monkeys. (C) WM capacity task. (D) Population firing rate for displays with different numbers of stimuli. (E) Average firing rate during the cue and delay period. Adapted, with permission, from Tang H, et al., 2019 475.

Figure 11. Drift and decay processes. Predictions of (A), the bump attractor model suggesting that drift is the main source of imprecision in working memory vs. (B), a model where the bump of activity decays. (C) For the bump attractor, but not the decaying bump model, the tuning curve bias computed from trials with clockwise versus counterclockwise deviations becomes increasingly positive through the delay. (D) Only for the bump attractor model, spike counts in response to flank stimuli correlated with behavioral deviations in the direction of the neuron's preferred cue as delay progressed. (E) For the bump attractor model, but not the decaying bump model, Fano factors computed separately for trials when a flank stimulus was presented are larger when considering inaccurate trials with large behavioral deviations (solid line) as compared to accurate trials (dashed line). (F) Only for the bump attractor model, neuron pair noise correlation is negative for those pairs with dissimilar tuning, when responding to a middle flank stimulus. Modified, with permission, from Wimmer K, et al., 2014 251.

Figure 12. Rodent WM. (A) Patterns of activation of mouse working memory, recorded from the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). (B) Individual neurons are typically active over a short period. (C) Mean z‐scored firing rate of delay‐elevated units identified after clustering into six groups based on temporal correlation in firing rates from dark red (earliest) to purple (latest). Approximately 30% of all mPFC neurons in the dataset exhibited significant delay‐elevated activity (inset). (D) Behavioral effects of inactivation of MD‐to‐mPFC terminals. (E) Behavioral effects of inactivation of mPFC‐to‐MD terminals. (A‐E) Reused, with permission, from Bolkan SS, et al., 2017 38. (F) Behavioral effects of inactivation of different mPFC interneuron populations during an auditory working memory task. Modified, with permission, from Kamigaki T, 2017 218.

Figure 13. WM Development. (A) Behavioral improvement of human working memory in adolescence. Adapted, with permission, from Simmonds DJ, et al., 2017 442. (B) Behavioral improvement of monkey WM in adolescence. (C) Persistent discharges in the adolescent and (D), adult PFC in the oculomotor delayed response task. (E,F). Activity in the adolescent and adult PFC in the distractor task. (B‐F) Reused, with permission, from Zhou X, et al., 2016 541.

Figure 14. Effects of training. (A) Anatomical MRI of the monkey lateral prefrontal cortex with anterior/posterior and dorsal/ventral subdivisions indicated relative to the principle and arcuate sulci. (B) Mean firing rate of neurons recorded in these subdivisions in monkeys both before and after they were trained to perform spatial WM tasks. Gray bars represent stimulus presentations. Data are shown separately for each prefrontal region. (A,B) Reused, with permission, from Riley MR, et al., 2018 395. (C) Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis for recordings from low‐performance and high‐performance sessions, as monkeys were trained in a multi‐stimulus WM task. Reused, with permission, from Tang H, et al., 2019 475.

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Russell J. Jaffe, Christos Constantinidis. Working Memory: From Neural Activity to the Sentient Mind. Compr Physiol 2021, 11: 2547-2587. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c210005

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Working Memory: From Neural Activity to the Sentient Mind

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