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Anatomy of the Descending Pathways

H. G. J. M. Kuypers

10.1002/cphy.cp010213

Source: Supplement 2: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Motor Control

Originally published: 1981

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Anatomical Techniques
1.1 Visualization of Neurons and Their Processes
1.2 Tracing of Axons and Identification of Their Terminals by Techniques of Anterograde Labeling
1.3 Identification of Cells of Origin of Fiber Systems by Retrograde Labeling
1.4 Identification of Neurons and Tracing of Their Axons
2 Anatomy of Spinal Cord and Brain Stem
2.1 Spinal Cord
2.2 Brain Stem
3 Descending Pathways
3.1 Descending Brain Stem Pathways
3.2 Descending Cortical Pathways
4 Synthesis
4.1 Grouping of Descending Pathways on the Basis of Their Terminal Distribution
4.2 Functional Epilogue
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Distribution of the different motoneuronal cells columns in the cervical and lumbosacral enlargements that innervate the various groups of limb muscles in cat. Note that motoneuronal cell groups innervating proximal muscles are distributed throughout the major portion of the enlargements. Cell group y in the S1 segment distributes its fibers by way of pudendal nerve to muscles of pelvic diaphragm and vesical and rectal sphincters.

From Kuypers 789, by permission of S. Karger AG, Basel
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Distribution of retrogradely HRP‐labeled neurons in cat cervical cord after HRP injections at different spinal levels. Note that after L6 injections the labeled long propriospinal neurons are concentrated in lamina VIII and adjoining parts of lamina VII, whereas after T1 injections short propriospinal neurons in the dorsal and lateral part of laminae V and VII are also labeled.

Adapted from Molenaar and Kuypers 490
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Distribution of ascending and descending propriospinal fibers in cat, based on silver‐impregnated anterograde fiber degeneration. Distribution of descending fibers has been obtained by hemisecting the cord at T1–T2 in animals in which cord had previously been hemisected at C2 on that same side 80 wk earlier. After such a survival time the descending degeneration resulting from the C2 hemisection can no longer be demonstrated.

From Giovanelli‐Barilari and Kuypers 216
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Left: distribution of propriospinal fibers from different portions of lateral and ventral funiculi to the various motoneuronal cell groups in cat L7 ventral horn. Right: distribution of neurons in different parts of intermediate zone that distribute their fibers to the various portions of lateral and ventral funiculi in cat. Data based on findings obtained by means of silver‐impregnated anterograde axon degeneration and by means of retrograde cell degeneration.

Adapted from Molenaar, Rustioni, and Kuypers 491
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Distribution of rubrospinal, long propriospinal, and bulbar reticulospinal fibers in gray matter of cat cervical and lumbosacral cord. Note that termination of long propriospinal and reticulospinal fibers in the enlargements occupy mainly the ventromedial part of intermediate zone, but in upper cervical and upper lumbar region occupy almost the entire width of ventral horn. Distributions of rubrospinal and reticulospinal fibers are represented according to Petras 553.

From Giovanelli‐Barilari and Kuypers 216
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Left: brain stem connections to eye muscle nuclei. Middle and right: distribution of propriobulbar fibers from medial and lateral parts of bulbar lateral tegmental field to bulbar motor nuclei V, VII, and XII. Prl, preinterstitial area; RN, red nucleus; PC, posterior commissure; BC, brachium conjunctivum; PP, pontine paramedian reticular formation; PH, prepositus hypoglossi nucleus; R, raphe nucleus; PV, principal sensory trigeminal nucleus; SVC, spinal V complex; CN, cochlear nuclei; NV, trigeminal nerve; MED TEG, bulbar medial tegmental field; LAT TEG, bulbar lateral tegmental field.
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Distribution of retrograde HRP‐labeled neurons in a C2 spinal hemisected cat after HRP injections on the other side at T1. Asterisks in superior colliculus indicate locations of retrogradely labeled neurons after HRP injections at C2. F, fornix; SC, superior colliculus; RN, red nucleus; IC, inferior colliculus; RFp, pontine reticular formation; LP, ventrolateral pontine tegmentum; BC, brachium conjunctivum; SC, nucleus subcoeruleus; TRS, rubrospinal tract; NVL, lateral vestibular nucleus; RB, restiform body; MV, medial vestibular nucleus; DV, descending vestibular nucleus; OLS, superior olive; OLI, inferior olive; R, raphe; SVC, spinal trigeminal complex; NTS, solitary nucleus; NCG, dorsal column nuclei cuneatus and gracilis; LR, lateral reticular nucleus; NRA, retroambiguus nucleus.

From Kuypers and Maisky 381
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Distribution of medially descending brain stem pathways, which terminate characteristically in area of long propriospinal neurons in intermediate one and in addition terminate also in bulbar medial reticular formation. Note that some of these pathways also project to medial part of facial nucleus, innervating external ear muscles and platysma. Note further that tectospinal fibers and medullary reticulospinal fibers also distribute to lateral parts of intermediate zone. CH OPT, optic chiasm; IC, interstitial nucleus of Cajal; RN, red nucleus; BC, brachium conjunctivum; Vm, trigeminal motor nucleus; VEST COMPL, vestibular complex; S, superior vestibular nucleus; L, lateral vestibular nucleus; M, medial vestibular nucleus; D, descending (spinal) vestibular nucleus; PREP HYP, nucleus prepositus hypoglossi; sol n, solitary nucleus; n dors x, dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus; N. INTERCAL., nucleus intercalatus.
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Trajectory and terminal distribution of laterally descending brain stem pathway, which are derived from contralateral magnocellular red nucleus, Edinger‐Westphal nucleus, ventrolateral pontine tegmentum, and raphe nuclei. Many of these pathways characteristically distribute fibers to bulbar lateral tegmental field, area of dorsal column nuclei, and dorsal and lateral part of the spinal intermediate zone, which contains short propriospinal neurons. Some of these pathways also distribute fibers to lamina I of spinal dorsal horn (asterisks). OPT CH, optic chiasm; HYPOTH, hypothalamus; THALAM, thalamus; EW, Edinger‐Westphal nucleus; IC, interstitial nucleus of Cajal; RN, red nucleus; BC, brachium conjunctivum; PV, principal sensory trigeminal nucleus; R, raphe nuclei; DCN, dorsal column nuclei cuneatus and gracilis; LAT TEG, bulbar lateral tegmental field; CN, cochlear nuclei; MED TEG, medial tegmental field; SVC, spinal V complex.
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Trajectory and terminal distribution of descending fibers from nucleus subcoeruleus (left) and from raphe nuclei and caudal medullary medial reticular formation (middle) to somatic motoneuronal cell groups in spinal cord. Right: descending brain stem fibers from amygdala, hypothalamus, nucleus laterodorsalis tegmenti, cell group A5, and raphe nuclei to autonomic motoneuronal cell groups of solitary‐dorsal vagal complex and intermediolateral nuclei of thoracic and sacral cord. CH OPT, optic chiasm; HYPOTH, hypothalmus; SUP COLL, superior colliculus; INF COLL, inferior colliculus; SUBCOERUL, nucleus subcoeruleus; R, raphe nuclei; LAT‐DORS TEGM. N, nucleus laterodorsalis tegmenti; N DORS X, dorsal motor nucleus of vagus; N SOL, solitary nucleus.
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Schematic indicating distribution of corticospinal fibers from left hemisphere over the various funiculi (DF, dorsal funiculus; LF, lateral funiculus; VF, ventral funiculus) in different mammalian species and distribution of these fibers to laminae V to VIII of intermediate zone and to motoneuronal cell groups in different parts of spinal cord. Notations at left for each animal: maximum diameter of pyramidal fibers, then reference number of work on which data are based.
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Distribution of corticospinal fibers from left hemisphere to low cervical spinal gray matter in opossum, cat, rhesus monkey, and chimpanzee.

Drawing based on data of Flindt‐Egebak 195, Kuypers and Brinkman 373,376, and Martin and Fisher 449
Figure 13. Figure 13.

A: Reconstruction of an axon collateral of corticospinal neuron at C3 and C4 in cat. Wide rostrocaudal extension of a single axon collateral is characteristic of corticospinal branches. Broken lines and dashed and dotted line show borders of gray matter at level of entry of the collateral into it and level of the central canal, respectively. Arrow indicates injection site of HRP.

Adapted from Futami et al. 788.] B: Transverse reconstruction of a corticospinal axon originating from monkey motor cortex. Ulnar nerve motoneurons (upper two motor nuclei) and radial nerve motonuerons (lower two motor nuclei) labeled by method of retrograde transport of HRP. This axon branch projects to different motoneuron groups, and close contacts of terminal boutons with proximal dendrites of some of HRP‐labeled motoneurons (presumably functional synapses) could be identified in these motor nuclei with light microscope. [From Shinoda et al. 791
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Distribution of corticospinal fibers in low cervical intermediate zone and motoneuronal cell groups in cat, adult monkey, and 4‐day‐old monkey as observed in silver‐impregnated anterograde fiber degeneration studies.

Adapted from Kuypers 372, copyright 1962 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Trajectory and terminal distribution of cortical fibers from left hemisphere to the various bulbar cell groups in goat, cat, and rhesus monkey. Note presence in goat of Bagley's bundle (BB), which distributes fibers mainly to ipsilateral lateral tegmental field. Note also absence of corticobulbar projections to bulbar Vm, motor nucleus VII, and motor nucleus XII in goat and cat, and presence of such connections in rhesus monkey. IC, internal capsule; CP, cerebral peduncle; BB, Bagley's bundle; P, pyramidal tract; BC, brachium conjunctivum; CN, cochlear nuclei; DCN, dorsal column nuclei; lat tegm, bulbar lateral tegmental field; SVC, spinal trigeminal complex; PD, pyramidal decussation.
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Origin of cortical projections to different cell groups in brain stem and spinal cord in monkey. Note that cortical projections to superior colliculus, nucleus of posterior commissure, bulbar medial tegmental field, parafascicular nucleus, and dorsomedial part of parvocellular red nucleus (left and middle diagrams, both rows) are derived mainly from frontal areas rostral to precentral gyrus. Note that projections to magnocellular red nucleus, nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus, center median, and ventrolateral part of parvocellular red nucleus (middle diagram, upper row, left and middle diagrams, lower row) are primarily derived from precentral gyrus. Note also that cortical projections to bulbar lateral tegmental field and spinal intermediate zone (upper row, right) are derived from precentral gyrus and rostrally adjoining areas, whereas those of bulbar and spinal motoneuronal cell groups are mainly derived from caudal part of precentral gyrus. Note further that cortical projections to spinal V complex, spinal dorsal horn, and dorsal column nuclei (left, both rows) are derived mainly from postcentral and parietal areas and secondary sensory cortex but that projections to dorsal column nuclei are also derived from caudal part of precentral gyrus.
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Distribution of degenerating precentral corticospinal fibers to the different parts of spinal intermediate zone and motoneuronal cell groups in monkey after lesions in different parts of precentral corticospinal area. Note that after lesions of hand and foot representation areas the degenerating fibers are mainly distributed to dorsal and lateral parts, dl, of contralateral intermediate zone and to motoneuronal cell groups, mn, of distal extremity muscles. Note also that degenerating fibers, which are distributed bilaterally to ventromedial part, vm, of intermediate zone are most numerous after lesions along central sulcus between hand and foot representation areas and after lesions of anterior part of corticospinal area, in which cases only a few degenerating fibers are distributed to motoneuronal cell groups. Upper right: differential origin of projections to ventromedial part of intermediate zone and motoneuronal cell groups.

Adapted from Kuypers and Brinkman 376
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Distribution of degenerating cortical fibers from different parts of frontal lobe to brain stem in monkey. Note differences in distributions of cortical fibers to superior colliculus, red nucleus, and pontine and medullary reticular formation after lesions in different frontal areas.

From Kuypers and Lawrence 380
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Rhesus monkey, 5 mo after bilateral pyramidotomy, reaching for morsel of food held in forceps (left) and grasping it (right). Note opening and closing of hand relatively independent of arm movements.

From Lawrence and Kuypers 399
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Left: rhesus monkey with intact pyramidal tracts taking morsels of food from 8‐mm diam food well using index finger alone. Right: rhesus monkey 2 mo after bilateral pyramidotomy taking morsel of food from large food well by flexing all fingers in concert.

From Lawrence and Kuypers 790, copyright 1965 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science


Figure 1.

Distribution of the different motoneuronal cells columns in the cervical and lumbosacral enlargements that innervate the various groups of limb muscles in cat. Note that motoneuronal cell groups innervating proximal muscles are distributed throughout the major portion of the enlargements. Cell group y in the S1 segment distributes its fibers by way of pudendal nerve to muscles of pelvic diaphragm and vesical and rectal sphincters.

From Kuypers 789, by permission of S. Karger AG, Basel


Figure 2.

Distribution of retrogradely HRP‐labeled neurons in cat cervical cord after HRP injections at different spinal levels. Note that after L6 injections the labeled long propriospinal neurons are concentrated in lamina VIII and adjoining parts of lamina VII, whereas after T1 injections short propriospinal neurons in the dorsal and lateral part of laminae V and VII are also labeled.

Adapted from Molenaar and Kuypers 490


Figure 3.

Distribution of ascending and descending propriospinal fibers in cat, based on silver‐impregnated anterograde fiber degeneration. Distribution of descending fibers has been obtained by hemisecting the cord at T1–T2 in animals in which cord had previously been hemisected at C2 on that same side 80 wk earlier. After such a survival time the descending degeneration resulting from the C2 hemisection can no longer be demonstrated.

From Giovanelli‐Barilari and Kuypers 216


Figure 4.

Left: distribution of propriospinal fibers from different portions of lateral and ventral funiculi to the various motoneuronal cell groups in cat L7 ventral horn. Right: distribution of neurons in different parts of intermediate zone that distribute their fibers to the various portions of lateral and ventral funiculi in cat. Data based on findings obtained by means of silver‐impregnated anterograde axon degeneration and by means of retrograde cell degeneration.

Adapted from Molenaar, Rustioni, and Kuypers 491


Figure 5.

Distribution of rubrospinal, long propriospinal, and bulbar reticulospinal fibers in gray matter of cat cervical and lumbosacral cord. Note that termination of long propriospinal and reticulospinal fibers in the enlargements occupy mainly the ventromedial part of intermediate zone, but in upper cervical and upper lumbar region occupy almost the entire width of ventral horn. Distributions of rubrospinal and reticulospinal fibers are represented according to Petras 553.

From Giovanelli‐Barilari and Kuypers 216


Figure 6.

Left: brain stem connections to eye muscle nuclei. Middle and right: distribution of propriobulbar fibers from medial and lateral parts of bulbar lateral tegmental field to bulbar motor nuclei V, VII, and XII. Prl, preinterstitial area; RN, red nucleus; PC, posterior commissure; BC, brachium conjunctivum; PP, pontine paramedian reticular formation; PH, prepositus hypoglossi nucleus; R, raphe nucleus; PV, principal sensory trigeminal nucleus; SVC, spinal V complex; CN, cochlear nuclei; NV, trigeminal nerve; MED TEG, bulbar medial tegmental field; LAT TEG, bulbar lateral tegmental field.



Figure 7.

Distribution of retrograde HRP‐labeled neurons in a C2 spinal hemisected cat after HRP injections on the other side at T1. Asterisks in superior colliculus indicate locations of retrogradely labeled neurons after HRP injections at C2. F, fornix; SC, superior colliculus; RN, red nucleus; IC, inferior colliculus; RFp, pontine reticular formation; LP, ventrolateral pontine tegmentum; BC, brachium conjunctivum; SC, nucleus subcoeruleus; TRS, rubrospinal tract; NVL, lateral vestibular nucleus; RB, restiform body; MV, medial vestibular nucleus; DV, descending vestibular nucleus; OLS, superior olive; OLI, inferior olive; R, raphe; SVC, spinal trigeminal complex; NTS, solitary nucleus; NCG, dorsal column nuclei cuneatus and gracilis; LR, lateral reticular nucleus; NRA, retroambiguus nucleus.

From Kuypers and Maisky 381


Figure 8.

Distribution of medially descending brain stem pathways, which terminate characteristically in area of long propriospinal neurons in intermediate one and in addition terminate also in bulbar medial reticular formation. Note that some of these pathways also project to medial part of facial nucleus, innervating external ear muscles and platysma. Note further that tectospinal fibers and medullary reticulospinal fibers also distribute to lateral parts of intermediate zone. CH OPT, optic chiasm; IC, interstitial nucleus of Cajal; RN, red nucleus; BC, brachium conjunctivum; Vm, trigeminal motor nucleus; VEST COMPL, vestibular complex; S, superior vestibular nucleus; L, lateral vestibular nucleus; M, medial vestibular nucleus; D, descending (spinal) vestibular nucleus; PREP HYP, nucleus prepositus hypoglossi; sol n, solitary nucleus; n dors x, dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus; N. INTERCAL., nucleus intercalatus.



Figure 9.

Trajectory and terminal distribution of laterally descending brain stem pathway, which are derived from contralateral magnocellular red nucleus, Edinger‐Westphal nucleus, ventrolateral pontine tegmentum, and raphe nuclei. Many of these pathways characteristically distribute fibers to bulbar lateral tegmental field, area of dorsal column nuclei, and dorsal and lateral part of the spinal intermediate zone, which contains short propriospinal neurons. Some of these pathways also distribute fibers to lamina I of spinal dorsal horn (asterisks). OPT CH, optic chiasm; HYPOTH, hypothalamus; THALAM, thalamus; EW, Edinger‐Westphal nucleus; IC, interstitial nucleus of Cajal; RN, red nucleus; BC, brachium conjunctivum; PV, principal sensory trigeminal nucleus; R, raphe nuclei; DCN, dorsal column nuclei cuneatus and gracilis; LAT TEG, bulbar lateral tegmental field; CN, cochlear nuclei; MED TEG, medial tegmental field; SVC, spinal V complex.



Figure 10.

Trajectory and terminal distribution of descending fibers from nucleus subcoeruleus (left) and from raphe nuclei and caudal medullary medial reticular formation (middle) to somatic motoneuronal cell groups in spinal cord. Right: descending brain stem fibers from amygdala, hypothalamus, nucleus laterodorsalis tegmenti, cell group A5, and raphe nuclei to autonomic motoneuronal cell groups of solitary‐dorsal vagal complex and intermediolateral nuclei of thoracic and sacral cord. CH OPT, optic chiasm; HYPOTH, hypothalmus; SUP COLL, superior colliculus; INF COLL, inferior colliculus; SUBCOERUL, nucleus subcoeruleus; R, raphe nuclei; LAT‐DORS TEGM. N, nucleus laterodorsalis tegmenti; N DORS X, dorsal motor nucleus of vagus; N SOL, solitary nucleus.



Figure 11.

Schematic indicating distribution of corticospinal fibers from left hemisphere over the various funiculi (DF, dorsal funiculus; LF, lateral funiculus; VF, ventral funiculus) in different mammalian species and distribution of these fibers to laminae V to VIII of intermediate zone and to motoneuronal cell groups in different parts of spinal cord. Notations at left for each animal: maximum diameter of pyramidal fibers, then reference number of work on which data are based.



Figure 12.

Distribution of corticospinal fibers from left hemisphere to low cervical spinal gray matter in opossum, cat, rhesus monkey, and chimpanzee.

Drawing based on data of Flindt‐Egebak 195, Kuypers and Brinkman 373,376, and Martin and Fisher 449


Figure 13.

A: Reconstruction of an axon collateral of corticospinal neuron at C3 and C4 in cat. Wide rostrocaudal extension of a single axon collateral is characteristic of corticospinal branches. Broken lines and dashed and dotted line show borders of gray matter at level of entry of the collateral into it and level of the central canal, respectively. Arrow indicates injection site of HRP.

Adapted from Futami et al. 788.] B: Transverse reconstruction of a corticospinal axon originating from monkey motor cortex. Ulnar nerve motoneurons (upper two motor nuclei) and radial nerve motonuerons (lower two motor nuclei) labeled by method of retrograde transport of HRP. This axon branch projects to different motoneuron groups, and close contacts of terminal boutons with proximal dendrites of some of HRP‐labeled motoneurons (presumably functional synapses) could be identified in these motor nuclei with light microscope. [From Shinoda et al. 791


Figure 14.

Distribution of corticospinal fibers in low cervical intermediate zone and motoneuronal cell groups in cat, adult monkey, and 4‐day‐old monkey as observed in silver‐impregnated anterograde fiber degeneration studies.

Adapted from Kuypers 372, copyright 1962 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science


Figure 15.

Trajectory and terminal distribution of cortical fibers from left hemisphere to the various bulbar cell groups in goat, cat, and rhesus monkey. Note presence in goat of Bagley's bundle (BB), which distributes fibers mainly to ipsilateral lateral tegmental field. Note also absence of corticobulbar projections to bulbar Vm, motor nucleus VII, and motor nucleus XII in goat and cat, and presence of such connections in rhesus monkey. IC, internal capsule; CP, cerebral peduncle; BB, Bagley's bundle; P, pyramidal tract; BC, brachium conjunctivum; CN, cochlear nuclei; DCN, dorsal column nuclei; lat tegm, bulbar lateral tegmental field; SVC, spinal trigeminal complex; PD, pyramidal decussation.



Figure 16.

Origin of cortical projections to different cell groups in brain stem and spinal cord in monkey. Note that cortical projections to superior colliculus, nucleus of posterior commissure, bulbar medial tegmental field, parafascicular nucleus, and dorsomedial part of parvocellular red nucleus (left and middle diagrams, both rows) are derived mainly from frontal areas rostral to precentral gyrus. Note that projections to magnocellular red nucleus, nucleus tegmenti pedunculopontinus, center median, and ventrolateral part of parvocellular red nucleus (middle diagram, upper row, left and middle diagrams, lower row) are primarily derived from precentral gyrus. Note also that cortical projections to bulbar lateral tegmental field and spinal intermediate zone (upper row, right) are derived from precentral gyrus and rostrally adjoining areas, whereas those of bulbar and spinal motoneuronal cell groups are mainly derived from caudal part of precentral gyrus. Note further that cortical projections to spinal V complex, spinal dorsal horn, and dorsal column nuclei (left, both rows) are derived mainly from postcentral and parietal areas and secondary sensory cortex but that projections to dorsal column nuclei are also derived from caudal part of precentral gyrus.



Figure 17.

Distribution of degenerating precentral corticospinal fibers to the different parts of spinal intermediate zone and motoneuronal cell groups in monkey after lesions in different parts of precentral corticospinal area. Note that after lesions of hand and foot representation areas the degenerating fibers are mainly distributed to dorsal and lateral parts, dl, of contralateral intermediate zone and to motoneuronal cell groups, mn, of distal extremity muscles. Note also that degenerating fibers, which are distributed bilaterally to ventromedial part, vm, of intermediate zone are most numerous after lesions along central sulcus between hand and foot representation areas and after lesions of anterior part of corticospinal area, in which cases only a few degenerating fibers are distributed to motoneuronal cell groups. Upper right: differential origin of projections to ventromedial part of intermediate zone and motoneuronal cell groups.

Adapted from Kuypers and Brinkman 376


Figure 18.

Distribution of degenerating cortical fibers from different parts of frontal lobe to brain stem in monkey. Note differences in distributions of cortical fibers to superior colliculus, red nucleus, and pontine and medullary reticular formation after lesions in different frontal areas.

From Kuypers and Lawrence 380


Figure 19.

Rhesus monkey, 5 mo after bilateral pyramidotomy, reaching for morsel of food held in forceps (left) and grasping it (right). Note opening and closing of hand relatively independent of arm movements.

From Lawrence and Kuypers 399


Figure 20.

Left: rhesus monkey with intact pyramidal tracts taking morsels of food from 8‐mm diam food well using index finger alone. Right: rhesus monkey 2 mo after bilateral pyramidotomy taking morsel of food from large food well by flexing all fingers in concert.

From Lawrence and Kuypers 790, copyright 1965 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science
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Article Title: Anatomy of the Descending Pathways
 

How to Cite

H. G. J. M. Kuypers. Anatomy of the Descending Pathways. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 2: Handbook of Physiology, The Nervous System, Motor Control: 597-666. First published in print 1981. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp010213