Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Peptides and Blood Vessels

Phillip G. Schmid, Fouad M. Sharabi, M. Ian Phillips

10.1002/cphy.cp020322

Source: Supplement 8: Handbook of Physiology, The Cardiovascular System, Peripheral Circulation and Organ Blood Flow

Originally published: 1983

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Vascular Effects
1.1 Angiotensin
1.2 Bradykinin
1.3 Neurotensin
1.4 Opiate Peptides
1.5 Secretin and Glucagon
1.6 Somatostatin
1.7 Substance P
1.8 Thyrotropin‐Releasing Hormone
1.9 Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide
1.10 Vasopressin and Oxytocin
2 Mechanisms of Action
2.1 Molecular Determinants
2.2 Neurogenic Determinants
3 Summary
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Effect of neuropeptides on blood pressure by intravenous injection (iv) in μg/ml and intracerebroventricular injection (ivt) in μg/ml. Chronic, unanesthetized rats. VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide.

From M. I. Phillips, unpublished data
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Schematic of potential central nervous system sites of action. I, vagal nuclei; II, brain stem catecholamine neurons; III, sympathetic vasomotor neurons; 1, afferents from arterial and cardiopulmonary receptors; 2, ascending and descending brain pathways; 3, preganglionic and postganglionic sympathetic efferents; 4, preganglionic and postganglionic parasympathetic efferents; AVP, arginine vasopressin. Text explains possible influence of vasopressin at these sites.


Figure 1.

Effect of neuropeptides on blood pressure by intravenous injection (iv) in μg/ml and intracerebroventricular injection (ivt) in μg/ml. Chronic, unanesthetized rats. VIP, vasoactive intestinal peptide.

From M. I. Phillips, unpublished data


Figure 2.

Schematic of potential central nervous system sites of action. I, vagal nuclei; II, brain stem catecholamine neurons; III, sympathetic vasomotor neurons; 1, afferents from arterial and cardiopulmonary receptors; 2, ascending and descending brain pathways; 3, preganglionic and postganglionic sympathetic efferents; 4, preganglionic and postganglionic parasympathetic efferents; AVP, arginine vasopressin. Text explains possible influence of vasopressin at these sites.

References
 1. Abboud, F. M. Vascular responses to norepinephrine, angiotensin, vasopressin and serotonin. Federation Proc. 27: 1391–1395, 1968.
 2. Aisenbrey, G. A., W. A. Handelman, P. Arnold, M. Manning, and R. W. Schrier. Vascular effects of arginine vasopressin during fluid deprivation in the rat. J. Clin. Invest. 67: 961–968, 1981.
 3. Akatsuka, N., W. H. Moran, M. L. Morgan, and M. L. Wilson. Effects of steady‐state plasma vasopressin levels on the distribution of intrarenal blood flow on electrolyte excretion. J. Physiol. London 266: 567–586, 1977.
 4. Allen, G. S., C. J. Gross, L. A. French, and S. N. Chou. Cerebral arterial spasm. 5. In vitro contractile activity of vasoactive agents including human CSF on human basilar and anterior cerebral arteries. J. Neurosurg. 44: 594–600, 1976.
 5. Allen, G. S., C. J. Gross, L. M. Henderson, and S. N. Chou. Cerebral arterial spasm. 4. In vitro effects of temperature, serotonin analogues, large nonphysiological concentrations of serotonin and extracellular calcium and magnesium on serotonin‐induced contractions of the canine basilar artery. J. Neurosurg. 44: 585–593, 1976.
 6. Allen, G. S., R. D. Harris, C. J. Gross, and S. N. Chou. Cerebral arterial spasm. Contractile activity of vasoactive agents on human cortical and temporal arteries. In: Microsurgery for Shock, edited by P. Schmiedek. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1977, p. 98–104.
 7. Altura, B. M. Significance of amino acid residues in vasopressin on contraction in vascular muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 219: 222–229, 1970.
 8. Altura, B. M. Chemical and humoral regulation of blood flow through the precapillary sphincter. Microvasc. Res. 3: 361–384, 1971.
 9. Altura, B. M. Selective microvascular constrictor actions of some neurohypophyseal peptides. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 24: 49–60, 1973.
 10. Altura, B. M. Magnesium‐neurohypophyseal hormone interactions in contraction of vascular smooth muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 228: 1615–1620, 1975.
 11. Altura, B. M. Pharmacology of venular smooth muscle: new insights. Microvasc. Res. 16: 91–117, 1978.
 12. Altura, B. M., and B. T. Altura. Vascular smooth muscle and neurohypophyseal hormones. Federation Proc. 36: 1853–1860, 1977.
 13. Altura, B. M., S. G. Hershey, and B. W. Zweifach. Effects of a synthetic analogue of vasopressin on vascular smooth muscle. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 119: 258–261, 1965.
 14. Altura, B. M., D. Malaviya, C. F. Reich, and L. R. Orkin. Effects of vasoactive agents on isolated human umbilical arteries and veins. Am. J. Physiol. 222: 345–355, 1972.
 15. Amiranoff, B., M. Laburthe, and G. Rosselin. Characterization of specific binding sites for vasoactive intestinal peptide in rat intestinal epithelial cell membranes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 627: 215–224, 1980.
 16. Andrews, C. E., and B. M. Brenner. Relative contribution of arginine vasopressin and angiotensin II to maintenance of systemic arterial pressure in the anesthetized water‐deprived rat. Circ. Res. 48: 254–258, 1981.
 17. Ausiello, D. A., and D. Hall. Regulation of vasopressin‐sensitive adenylate cyclase by calmodulin. J. Biol. Chem. 256: 9796–9798, 1981.
 18. Ausiello, D. A., J. I. Kreisberg, C. Roy, and M. J. Karnovsky. Contraction of cultured rat glomerular cells of apparent mesangial origin after stimulation with angiotensin II and arginine vasopressin. J. Clin. Invest. 65: 754–760, 1980.
 19. Baker, K., C. Campanile, G. Trachte, and M. Peach. Effect of guanine nucleotides on the rabbit angiotensin II myocardial receptor (Abstract). Circulation Suppl. 66: II97, 1982.
 20. Banks, R. O. Influence of antidiuretic hormone on intrarenal blood flow distribution in diabetes insipidus dogs and rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 151: 547–551, 1976.
 21. Barabe, J., F. Marceau, B. Theriault, J. N. Drouin, and D. Regoli. Cardiovascular actions of kinins in the rabbit. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 57: 78–91, 1978.
 22. Beijer, H. J. M., P. F. Hulstaert, F. A. S. Brouwer, and G. A. Charbon. The effect of secretin on peripheral arterial blood flow. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. 240: 269–277, 1979.
 23. Bellet, M., J. L. Elghozi, P. Meyer, M. G. Pernollet, and H. Schmitt. Central cardiovascular effects of narcotic analgesics and enkephalins in rats. Br. J. Pharmacol. 71: 365–369, 1980.
 24. Benelli, G., D. Della Bella, Gandini A. Angiotensin and peripheral sympathetic nerve activity. Br. J. Pharmacol. 22: 211–219, 1964.
 25. Bennet, J. P., Jr., and S. H. Snyder. Angiotensin II binding to mammalian brain membranes. J. Biol. Chem. 251: 7423–7430, 1976.
 26. Bickerton, R. K., and J. P. Buckley. Evidence for a central mechanism in angiotensin induced hypertension. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 106: 834–836, 1961.
 27. Bie, P. Osmoreceptors, vasopressin, and control of renal water excretion. Physiol. Rev. 60: 961–1048, 1980.
 28. Binder, H. J., G. F. Lemp, and J. D. Gardner. Receptors for vasoactive intestinal peptide and secretin on small intestinal epithelial cells. Am. J. Physiol. 238 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 1): G190–G196, 1980.
 29. Black, J. W. Electrocardiographic changes produced in rabbits by vasopressin (pitressin) and their alteration by prolonged treatment with a commercial heart extract. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 12: 87–94, 1960.
 30. Blackburn, A. M., and S. R. Bloom. A radioimmunoassay for neurotensin in human plasma. J. Endocrinol. 83: 175–181, 1979.
 31. Bloom, S. R., and A. V. Edwards. Vasoactive intestinal peptide in relation to atropine resistant vasodilatation in the submaxillary gland of the cat. J. Physiol. London 300: 41–53, 1980.
 32. Bohr, D. F., and B. Johansson. Contraction of vascular smooth muscle in response to plasma. Circ. Res. 19: 593–601, 1966.
 33. Bolme, P., K. F. Fuxe, L. F. Agnati, R. Bradley, and J. Smythies. Cardiovascular effects of morphine and opioid peptides following intracisternal administration in chloralose‐anesthetized rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 48: 319–324, 1978.
 34. Brown, M., and Y. Taché. Hypothalamic peptides: central nervous system control of visceral function. Federation Proc. 40: 2565–2569, 1981.
 35. Brownstein, M. J., J. T. Russell, and H. Gainer. Synthesis, transport, and release of posterior pituitary hormones. Science 207: 373–378, 1980.
 36. Buijs, R. M. Intra‐ and extrahypothalamic vasopressin and oxytocin pathways in the rat: pathways to the limbic system, medulla oblongata and spinal cord. Cell Tissue Res. 192: 423–435, 1978.
 37. Carretero, O. A., and A. G. Scicli. Possible role of kinins in circulatory homeostasis. State of the art review. Hypertension 3, Suppl. 1: 4–12, 1981.
 38. Castel, M. Immunocytochemical evidence for vasopressin receptors. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 26: 581–592, 1978.
 39. Catt, K. J., J. P. Harwood, G. Aguilera, and M. L. Dufau. Hormonal regulation of peptide receptors and target cell responses. Nature London 280: 109–116, 1978.
 40. Chan, D. K. O., and I. C. Jones. Pressor effects of neurohypophysial peptides in the eel, Anguilla anguilla L., with some reference to their interaction with adrenergic and cholinergic receptors. J. Endocrinol. 45: 161–174, 1969.
 41. Cherry, P. D., R. F. Furchgott, J. V. Zawadzki, and D. Jothianandan. Role of endothelial cells in relaxation of isolated arteries by bradykinin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79: 2106–2110, 1982.
 42. Cheung, W. Y. Calmodulin plays a pivotal role in cellular regulation. Science 207: 19–27, 1980.
 43. Cheung, W. Y. Discovery and recognition of calmodulin: a personal account. J. Cyclic Nucleotide Res. 7: 71–84, 1981.
 44. Christophe, J. P., T. P. Conlon, and J. D. Gardner. Interaction of porcine vasoactive intestinal peptide with dispersed pancreatic acinar cells from the guinea pig. J. Biol. Chem. 251: 4629–4634, 1976.
 45. Ciriello, J., and F. R. Calaresu. Monosynaptic pathway from cardiovascular neurons in the nucleus tractus solitarii to the paraventricular nucleus in the cat. Brain Res. 193: 529–533, 1980.
 46. Ciriello, J., and F. R. Calaresu. Role of paraventricular and supraoptic nuclei in central cardiovascular regulation in the cat. Am. J. Physiol. 239 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 8): R137–R142, 1980.
 47. Clark, K. E., E. G. Mills, S. J. Stys, and A. E. Seeds. Effects of vasoactive polypeptides on the uterine vasculature. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 139: 182–188, 1981.
 48. Condo, K., R. Garcia, R. Boucher, and J. Genest. Effects of intracerebroventricular administration of tonin on water intake and blood pressure in the rat. Brain Res. 200: 437–441, 1980.
 49. Conrad, L. C. A., and D. W. Pfaff. Efferents from medial basal forebrain and hypothalamus in the rat. II. An autoradiographic study of the anterior hypothalamus. J. Comp. Neurol. 196: 221–261, 1976.
 50. Cort, J. H., A. J. Fischman, W. J. Dodds, J. H. Rand, and I. L. Schwartz. New category of vasopressin receptor in the central nervous system. Int. J. Peptide Protein Res. 17: 14–22, 1981.
 51. Costa, E., A. Guidotti, I. Hanbaner, T. Hexum, L. Saiani, S. Stine, and H.‐Y. T. Yang. Regulation of acetylcholine receptors by endogenous cotransmitters: studies of adrenal medulla. Federation Proc. 40: 160–165, 1981.
 52. Cowley, A. W., E. Monos, and A. C. Guyton. Interaction of vasopressin and the baroreceptor reflex system in the regulation of arterial blood pressure in the dog. Circ. Res. 34: 505–514, 1974.
 53. Dashwood, M. R., and W. Feldberg. Central inhibitory effect of released opiate peptides on adrenal medulla, revealed by naloxone in the cat (Abstract). J. Physiol. London 290: 22P–23P, 1979.
 54. De Jong, W., and S. M. McLeod. Effect of autonomic blocking agents on the cardiovascular effects of octapressin. Acta Physiol. Pharmacol. Neerl. 14: 347–348, 1967.
 55. Desbuquois, B. The interaction of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide and secretin with liver cell membranes. Eur. J. Biochem. 46: 439–450, 1974.
 56. De Sousa, R. C., and A. Grosso. The mode of action of vasopressin: membrane microstructure and biological transport. J. Physiol. London 77: 643–669, 1981.
 57. Diana, J. N., and C. A. Shadur. Effect of arterial and venous pressure on capillary pressure and vascular volume. Am. J. Physiol. 225: 637–650, 1973.
 58. Douglas, J., S. Saltman, P. Fredlund, T. Kondo, and K. J. Catt. Receptor binding of angiotensin II and antagonists. Correlation with aldosterone production by isolated canine adrenal glomerulosa cells. Circ. Res. 38, Suppl. 2: 108–112, 1976.
 59. Edvinsson, L., J. Fahrenkrug, J. Hanko, C. Owman, F. Sundler, and R. Uddman. VIP (vasoactive intestinal polypeptide)‐containing nerves of intracranial arteries in mammals. Cell Tissue Res. 208: 135–142, 1980.
 60. Efendic, S., and R. Luft. Somatostatin. Special Article. Ann. Clin. Res. 12: 87–94, 1980.
 61. Elde, R., and T. Hökfelt. Distribution of hypothalamic hormones and other peptides in the brain. In: Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, edited by W. F. Ganong and L. Martini. New York: Raven, 1978, vol. 5, p. 1–33.
 62. Emerson, T. E., Jr. Effects of angiotensin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and vasopressin on venous return. Am. J. Physiol. 210: 933–942, 1966.
 63. Erwald, R., K.‐L. Wiechel, and T. Strandell. Effect of vasopressin on the mixing of portal venous blood in awake man. Am. J. Physiol. 233 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 2): H50–H56, 1977.
 64. Faden, A. I., and J. W. Holaday. Nalaxone treatment of endotoxin shock: stereospecificity of physiologic and pharmacologic effects in the rat. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 212: 441–447, 1980.
 65. Falcon, J. C., II, M. I. Phillips, W. E. Hoffman, and M. J. Brody. Effects of intraventricular angiotensin II mediated by the sympathetic nervous system. Am. J. Physiol. 235 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 4): H392–H399, 1978.
 66. Feldberg, W., and E. Wei. Central cardiovascular effect of enkephalin and C‐fragment of lipotropin (Abstract). J. Physiol. London 280: 18P, 1978.
 67. Feldberg, W., and E. Wei. Cardiovascular effects of morphine and of opioid peptides in anesthetized cats. In: Central Nervous System Mechanisms in Hypertension, Perspectives in Cardiovascular Research, edited by J. P. Buckley and C. M. Ferrario. New York: Raven, 1981, vol. 6, p. 229–234.
 68. Feuerstein, G., Ailam, R., and F. Bergman. Reversal by naloxone of hemorrhagic shock in anephric cats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 65: 93–96, 1980.
 69. Fisher, R. D., J.‐P. Grünfeld, and A. C. Barger. Intrarenal distribution of blood flow in diabetes insipidus: role of ADH. Am. J. Physiol. 219: 1348–1358, 1970.
 70. Fourman, J., and G. C. Kennedy. An effect of antidiuretic hormones on the flow of blood through the vasa recta of the rat kidney. J. Endocrinol. 35: 173–176, 1966.
 71. Franz, D. N., B. D. Hare, and K. L. McCloskey. Spinal sympathetic neurons: possible sites of opiate‐withdrawal suppression by clonidine. Science 215: 1643–1645, 1982.
 72. Freye, E., and J. O. Arndt. Perfusion of the fourth cerebral ventricle with fentanyl induces naloxone‐reversible bradycardia, hypotension and EEG synchronization in conscious dogs. Naunyn‐Schmeideberg's Arch. Pharmacol. 307: 123–128, 1979.
 73. Furchgott, R. F., J. V. Zawadzki, and P. D. Cherry. Role of endothelium in the vasodilator response to acetylcholine. In: Vasodilatation, edited by P. M. Vanhoutte and I. Leusen. New York: Raven, 1981, p. 49–66.
 74. Fuxe, K., L. F. Agnati, D. Ganten, M. Goldstein, T. Yukimura, G. Jonsson, P. Bolme, T. Hökfelt, K. Andersson, A. Härfstrand, T. Unger, and W. Rascher. The role of noradrenaline and adrenaline neuron systems and substance P in the control of central cardiovascular functions. In: Central Nervous System Mechanisms in Hypertension, edited by J. P. Buckley and C. M. Ferrario. New York: Raven, 1981, p. 89–113.
 75. Fuxe, K., L. F. Agnati, S. Rosell, A. Härfstrand, K. Folkers, j. M. Lundberg, K. Andersson, and R. Hökfelt. Vasopressor effects of substance P and C‐terminal sequences after intracisternal injection to α‐chloralose‐anaesthetized rats: blockade by a substance P antagonist. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 77: 171–176, 1982.
 76. Fuxe, K., K. Andersson, T. Hökfelt, V. Mutt, L. Ferland, L. F. Agnati, D. Ganten, S. Said, P. Eneroth, and J.‐Å. Gustafsson. Localization and possible function of peptidergic neurons and their interactions with central catecholamine neurons and the central actions of gut hormones. Federation Proc. 38: 2333–2340, 1979.
 77. Fuxe, K., K. Andersson, V. Locatelli, V. Mutt, J. Lundberg, T. Hökfelt, L. F. Agnati, P. Eneroth, and P. Bolme. Neuropeptides and central catecholamine systems: interactions in neuroendocrine and central cardiovascular regulation. In: Neural Peptides and Neuronal Communications, edited by E. Costa and M. Trabucchi. New York: Raven, 1980, p. 37–50.
 78. Fuxe, K., P. Bolme, G. Jonsson, L. F. Agnati, M. Goldstein, T. Hökfelt, R. Schwarcz, and J. Engel. On the cardiovascular role of noradrenaline, adrenaline and peptide containing neuron systems in the brain. In: Nervous System and Hypertension, edited by P. Meyer and H. Schmitt. Paris: Wiley, 1980, p. 1–17.
 79. Fuxe, K., D. Ganten, K. Andersson, L. Calza, L. F. Agnati, R. E. Lang, K. Poulsen, T. Hökfelt, and P. Bernardi. Immunocytochemical demonstration of angiotensin II and renin‐like immunoreactive nerve cells in the hypothalamus. Angiotensin peptides as comodulators in vasopressin and oxytocin neurons and their regulation of various types of central catecholamine nerve terminal systems. Exp. Brain Res. Suppl. 4: 208–232, 1982.
 80. Fuxe, K., D. Ganten, P. Bolme, L. F. Agnati, T. Hökfelt, K. Andersson, M. Goldstein, A. Hårfstrand, T. Unger, and W. Rascher. The role of central catecholamine pathways in spontaneous and renal hypertension in rats. In: Central Adrenaline Neurons: Basic Aspects and Their Role in Cardiovascular Functions, edited by K. Fuxe, M. Goldstein, B. Hökfelt, and T. Hökfelt. New York: Pergamon, 1980, p. 259–276.
 81. Fuxe, K., D. Ganten, T. Hökfelt, V. Locatelli, K. Poulsen, G. Stock, E. Rix, and R. Taugner. Renin‐like immunocytochemical activity in the rat and mouse brain. Neurosci. Lett. 18: 245–250, 1980.
 82. Fuxe, K., D. Ganten, C. Köhler, B. Schüll, and G. Speck. Evidence for differential localization of angiotensin‐I converting enzyme and renin in the corpus stiatum of rat. Acta Physiol. Scand. 110: 321–323, 1980.
 83. Gammeltoft, S., P. Staun‐Olsen, J. Fahrenkrug, P. D. Bartels, and B. Ottesen. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: specific binding to purified synaptic membranes from rat brain. Regulatory Pept. Suppl. 1: S40, 1980.
 84. Ganong, W. F., C. D. Rudolph, and H. Zimmermann. Neuroendocrine components in the regulation of blood pressure and renin secretion. Hypertension 1: 207–218, 1979.
 85. Ganten, D., and G. Speck. The brain renin‐angiotensin system: a model for the synthesis of peptides in the brain. Biochem. Pharmacol. 27: 2379–2389, 1978.
 86. Ganten, D., Th. Unger, B. Schölkens, W. Rascher, G. Speck, and G. Stock. Role of neuropeptides in regulation of blood pressure. In: Disturbances in Neurogenic Control of the Circulation, edited by F. M. Abboud, H. A. Fozzard, J. P. Gilmore, and D. J. Reis. Bethesda, MD: Am. Physiol. Soc, 1981, p. 139–151.
 87. Gautvik, K. M., T. B. Orstavik, and K. Svindahl. Release of glandular kallikrein. In: Enzymatic Release of Vasoactive Peptides, edited by F. Gross and G. Vogel. New York: Raven, 1980, p. 287–300.
 88. Gavras, H., P. Hatzinikolaou, W. G. North, M. Bresnahan, and I. Gavras. Interaction of the sympathetic nervous system with vasopressin and renin in the maintenance of blood pressure. Hypertension 4: 400–405, 1982.
 89. Giachetti, A., S. I. Said, R. C. Reynolds, and F. C. Koniges. Vasoactive intestinal peptide in brain: localization in and release from isolated nerve terminals. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 74: 3424–3428, 1977.
 90. Goldberg, J., G. Aisenbrey, M. Levi, T. Berl, and R. Schrier. Common pathway for vasoconstrictor properties of angiotensin (AII), norepinephrine (NE) and vasopressin (VP). Kidney Int. 19: 167, 1981.
 91. Goldberg, M. R., B. M. Chapnick, P. D. Joiner, A. L. Hyman, and P. J. Kadowitz. Influence of inhibitors of prostaglandin synthesis on venoconstrictor responses to bradykinin. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 198: 357–365, 1976.
 92. Goldman, H. Vasopressin modulation of the distribution of blood flow in the unanesthetized rat. Neuroendocrinology 1: 23–30, 1966.
 93. Göthlin, J. Effect of vasopressin on human renal circulation investigated by angiography and a dye dilution technique. Acta Radiol. Diagn. 17: 763–772, 1976.
 94. Greenberg, R., C. E. Whalley, F. Jourdikian, I. S. Mendelson, R. Walter, K. Nikolics, D. H. Coy, A. V. Schally, and A. J. Kastin. Peptides readily penetrate the blood brain barrier: uptake of peptides by synaptosomes is passive. Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 5, Suppl. 1: 151–158, 1976.
 95. Guillemin, R. Peptides in the brain: the new endocrinology of the neuron. Science 202: 390–402, 1978.
 96. Guillon, G., P. O. Couraud, D. Butlen, B. Cantan, and S. Jard. Size of vasopressin receptors from rat liver and kidney. Eur. J. Biochem. 111: 287–294, 1980.
 97. Gunther, S., M. A. Gimbrone, Jr., and R. W. Alexander. Identification and characterization of the high affinity vascular angiotensin II receptor in rat mesenteric artery. Circ. Res. 47: 278–286, 1980.
 98. Gunther, S., M. A. Gimbrone, Jr., and R. W. Alexander. Regulation by angiotensin II of its receptors in resistance blood vessels. Nature London 287: 230–232, 1980.
 99. Gurll, M. H., T. Vargish, D. G. Reynolds, and R. Lechner. Opiate receptors and endorphins in the pathophysiology of hemorrhagic shock. Surgery 89: 364–369, 1981.
 100. Haeusler, G., and R. Osterwalder. Is substance P the transmitter at the first synapse of the baroreceptor reflex in rats and cats? Clin. Sci. 59: 295S–297S, 1980.
 101. Halenda, S. P., K. L. Kelly, and R. P. Rubin. Stimulated arachidonic acid turnover in rat pancreas (Abstract). Pharmacologist 24: 102, 1982.
 102. Hancock, M. B. Cells of origin of hypothalamo‐spinal projections in the rat. Neurosci. Lett. 3: 179–184, 1976.
 103. Hartle, D. K., R. W. Lind, A. K. Johnson, and M. J. Brody. Localization of the anterior hypothalamic angiotensin II pressor system. Hypertension 4, Suppl. 2: 159–165, 1982.
 104. Hatton, R., D. Clough, K. Faulkner, and J. Conway. Angiotensin‐converting enzyme inhibitor resets baroreceptor reflexes in conscious dogs. Hypertension 3: 676–681, 1981.
 105. Heistad, D. D., M. L. Marcus, S. I. Said, and P. M. Gross. Effect of acetylcholine and vasoactive intestinal peptide on cerebral blood flow. Am. J. Physiol. 239 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 8): H73–H80, 1980.
 106. Hershey, S. G., V. D. B. Mazzia, B. M. Altura, and L. Gyure. Effects of vasopressors on the microcirculation and on survival in hemorrhagic shock. Anesthesiology 26: 179–189, 1965.
 107. Heyndrickx, G. R., D. H. Boettcher, and S. F. Vatner. Effects of angiotensin, vasopressin, and methoxamine on cardiac function and blood flow distribution in conscious dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 231: 1579–1587, 1976.
 108. Hirose, S., H. Yokosawa, and T. Inagami. Immunochemical identification of renin in rat brain and distinction from acid proteases. Nature London 274: 392–393, 1978.
 109. Hoffman, W. E. Regional vascular effects of antidiuretic hormone in normal and sympathetic blocked rats. Endocrinology 107: 334–341, 1980.
 110. Hoffman, W. E., M. I. Phillips, and P. Schmid. The role of catecholamines in central antidiuretic and pressor mechanisms. Neuropharmacology 16: 563–569, 1977.
 111. Hoffman, W. E., and P. G. Schmid. Separation of pressor and antidiuretic effects of intraventricular bradykinin. Neuropharmacology 17: 999–1002, 1978.
 112. Hökfelt, T., R. Elde, O. Johansson, R. Luft, G. Nilsson, and A. Arimura. Immunohistochemical evidence for separate populations of somatostatin‐containing and substance P‐containing primary afferent neurons in the rat. Neuroscience 1: 131–136, 1976.
 113. Hökfelt, T., L.‐G. Elfvin, M. Schultzbetg, K. Fuxe, S. I. Said, V. Mutt, and M. Boldstein. Immunohistochemical evidence of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide‐containing neurons and nerve fibers in sympathetic ganglia. Neuroscience 2: 885–896, 1977.
 114. Hökfelt, T., O. Johansson, Å. O. Ljungdahl, J. M. Lundberg, and M. Schultzberg. Peptidergic neurones. Nature London 284: 515–521, 1980.
 115. Holaday, J. W., R. J. D'Amato, and A. I. Faden. Thyrotropin‐releasing hormone improves cardiac function in experimental endotoxic and hemorrhagic shock. Science 213: 216–218, 1981.
 116. Hollenberg, N. K. Pharmacologic interruption of the renin‐angiotensin system. Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 19: 559–582, 1979.
 117. Holliger, C., M. Radzyner, A. Villiger, M. Anliker, and M. Knoblauch. Effects of glucagon, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and lysine‐vasopressin on villous microcirculation and superior mesenteric artery blood flow of the rat. Bibl. Anat. 18: 129–131, 1979. (Eur. Conf. Microcirc, 10th.)
 118. Hughes, J., and R. H. Roth. Evidence that angiotensin enhances transmitter release during sympathetic nerve stimulation. Br. J. Pharmacol. 41: 239–255, 1971.
 119. Inoue, K., T. Suzuki, T. Tobe, and H. Yajima. Hemodynamic response of the pancreas to synthetic chicken VIP in dogs. Endocrinol. Jpn. Suppl. 1: 65–69, 1980.
 120. Jackson, I. M. B. Thyrotropin‐releasing hormone. N. Engl. J. Med. 306: 145–155, 1982.
 121. Järhult, J., P. Hellstrand, and F. Sundler. Immunohistochemical localization and vascular effects of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide in skeletal muscle of the cat. Cell Tissue Res. 207: 55–64, 1980.
 122. Johnson, M. D., C. S. Park, and R. L. Malvin. Antidiuretic hormone and the distribution of renal cortical blood flow. Am. J. Physiol. 232 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 1): F111–F116, 1977.
 123. Kadowitz, P. G., C. S. Sweet, and M. J. Brody. Potentiation of adrenergic venomotor responses by angiotensin, prostaglandin F2αand cocaine. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 176: 167–173, 1971.
 124. Kaplan, J. Polypeptide‐binding membrane receptors: analysis and classification. Science 212: 14–20, 1981.
 125. Karmazyn, M., M. S. Manku, and D. F. Horrobin. Changes of vascular reactivity induced by low vasopressin concentrations: interactions with Cortisol and lithium and possible involvement of prostaglandins. Endocrinology 102: 1230–1236, 1978.
 126. Kerouac, R., F. Rioux, and S. St. Pierre. Mechanism of neurotensin‐induced pressor effect and tachycardia in guinea pigs. Life Sci. 28: 2477–2487, 1981.
 127. King, A. C., and P. Cuatrecasas. Peptide hormone‐induced receptor mobility, aggregation, and internalization. N. Engl. J. Med. 305: 77–88, 1981.
 128. Kirk, C. H., and R. H. Michell. Phosphatidylinositol metabolism in rat hepatocytes stimulated by vasopressin. Biochem. J. 194: 155–165, 1981.
 129. Kitabgi, P., and P. Freychet. Effects of neurotensin on isolated intestinal smooth muscles. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 50: 349–357, 1978.
 130. Konishi, S., A. Tsunoo, and M. Otsuka. Enkephalins presynaptically inhibit cholinergic transmission in sympathetic ganglia. Nature London 282: 515–516, 1979.
 131. Krieger, D. T., and A. S. Liotta. Pituitary hormones in brain: where, how and why? Science 205: 366–372, 1979.
 132. Kruszynski, M., B. Lammek, M. Manning, J. Seto, J. Halder, and W. H. Sawyer. [1‐(β‐Mercapto‐β,β‐cyclopentamethylenepropionic acid), 2‐(O‐ methyl)tyrosine] arginine‐vasopressin and [1‐(β‐mercapto‐β,β‐cyclopentamethylenepropionic acid)]arginine‐vasopressin, two highly potent antagonists of the vasopressor response to arginine‐vasopressin. J. Med. Chem. 23: 364–368, 1980.
 133. Kuypers, H. G. J. M., and V. A. Maisky. Retrograde axonal transport of horseradish peroxidase from spinal cord to brain stem cell groups in the cat. Neurosci. Lett. 1: 9–14, 1975.
 134. Laburthe, M., J. Prieto, B. Amiranoff, C. Dupont, J. Broyart, D. Hui Bon Hoa, Y. Broer, and G. Rosselin. VIP receptors in intestinal epithelial cells: distribution throughout the intestinal tract. In: Hormone Receptors in Digestion and Nutrition, edited by G. Rosselin, P. Fromargeot, and S. Bonfils. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1979, p. 241.
 135. Lassoff, S., and B. M. Altura. Do pial terminal arterioles respond to local perivascular application of the neurohypophyseal peptide hormones, vasopressin and oxytocin? Brain Res. 196: 266–269, 1980.
 136. Lauber, M., P. Nicolas, H. Boussetta, C. Fahy, P. Béguin, M. Camier, H. Vaudry, and P. Cohen. The Mr 80,000 common forms of neurophysin and vasopressin from bovine neurohypophysis have corticotropin‐ and β‐endorphin‐like sequences and liberate by proteolysis biologically active corticotropin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78: 6086–6090, 1981.
 137. Laubie, M., H. Schmitt, M. Vincent, and G. Remond. Central cardiovascular effects of morphinomimetic peptides in dogs. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 46: 67–71, 1977.
 138. Lee, W. B., M. J. Ismay, and E. R. Lumbers. Mechanisms by which angiotensin II affects the heart rate of the conscious sheep. Circ. Res. 47: 286–292, 1980.
 139. Leeman, S. E. Substance P and neurotensin: discovery, isolation, chemical characterization and physiological studies. J. Exp. Biol. 89: 193–200, 1980.
 140. Lembeck, F., and J. Donnerer. Postocclusive cutaneous vasodilatation mediated by substance P. Naunym‐Schmied‐berg's Arch. Pharmacol. 316: 165–171, 1981.
 141. Le Moal, M., G. F. Koob, L. Y. Koda, F. E. Bloom, M. Manning, W. H. Sawyer, and J. Rivier. Vasopressor receptor antagonist prevents behavioural effects of vasopressin. Nature London 291: 491–493, 1981.
 142. Lewis, R. E., W. E. Hoffman, and M. I. Phillips. Angiotensin II and bradykinin: interactions between two centrally active peptides. Am. J. Physiol. 244 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 13): R285–R291, 1983.
 143. Liard, J. F., O. Deriaz, M. Tschopp, and J. Schoun. Cardiovascular effects of vasopressin infused into the vertebral circulation of conscious dogs. Clin. Sci. 61: 345–347, 1981.
 144. Limbird, L. E. Activation and attenuation of adenylate cyclase. Biochem. J. 195: 1–13, 1981.
 145. Lin, S.‐H., and J. N. Fain. Vasopressin and epinephrine stimulation of phosphatidylinositol breakdown in the plasma membrane of rat hepatocytes. Life Sci. 29: 1905–1912, 1981.
 146. Lipton, B., S. G. Hershey, and S. Baez. Compatibility of oxytocins with anesthetic agents. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 179: 410–416, 1962.
 147. Livett, B. G., L. O. Uttenthal, and D. B. Hope. Localization of neurophysin‐II in the hypothalamo‐neurohypophysial system of the pig by immunofluorescence histochemistry. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London Ser. B 261: 371–378, 1971.
 148. Ljungdahl, Å., T. Hökfelt, and G. Nilsson. Distribution of substance P‐like immunoreactivity in the central nervous system of the rat. I. Cell bodies and nerve terminals. Neuroscience 3: 861–943, 1978.
 149. Lowbridge, J., M. Manning, J. Haldar, and W. H. Sawyer. [1‐(β‐Mercapto‐β,β‐cyclopentamethylenepropionic acid),4‐valine‐8‐D‐arginine]vasopressin, a potent and selective inhibitor of the vasopressor response to arginine‐vasopressin. J. Med. Chem. 21: 313–315, 1978.
 150. Lundberg, J. M., T. Hökfelt, G. Nilsson, L. Terenius, J. Rehfeld, R. Elde, and S. Said. Peptide neurons in the vagus, splanchnic and sciatic nerves. Acta Physiol. Scand. 104: 499–501, 1978.
 151. Lundberg, J. M., T. Hökfelt, M. Schultzberg, K. Uvnäs‐Wallenstein, C. Köhler, and S. I. Said. Occurrence of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP)‐like immunoreactivity in certain cholinergic neurons of the cat: evidence from combined immunohistochemistry and acetylcholinesterase staining. Neuroscience 4: 1539–1559, 1979.
 152. Malm, L., F. Sundler, and R. Uddman. Effects of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide on resistance and capacitance vessels in the nasal mucosa. Acta Oto‐Laryngol. 90: 304–308, 1980.
 153. Manning, M., J. Lowbridge, J. Haldar, and W. H. Sawyer. Design of neurohypophyseal peptides that exhibit selective agonistic and antagonistic properties. Federation Proc. 36: 1848–1852, 1977.
 154. Manning, M., J. Lowbridge, C. T. Stier, Jr., J. Haldar, and W. H. Sawyer. [1‐Deaminopenicillamine,4‐valine]‐8‐D‐arginine‐vasopressin, a highly potent inhibitor of the vasopressor response to arginine‐vasopressin. J. Med. Chem. 20: 1228–1230, 1977.
 155. Martin, R., and K. H. Voigt. Enkephalins co‐exist with oxytocin and vasopressin in nerve terminals of rat neurohypophysis. Nature London 289: 502–504, 1981.
 156. Matsuguchi, H., and P. G. Schmid. Acute interaction of vasopressin and neurogenic mechanisms in DOC‐salt hypertension. Am. J. Physiol. 242 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 1): H37–H43, 1982.
 157. Matsuguchi, H., and P. G. Schmid. Pressor response to vasopressin and impaired baroreflex function in DOC‐salt hypertension. Am. J. Physiol. 242 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 1): H44–H49, 1982.
 158. Matsuguchi, H., F. M. Sharabi, F. J. Gordon, A. K. Johnson, and P. G. Schmid. Blood pressure and heart rate responses to vasopressin microinjection into the nucleus tractus solitarius region of the rat. Neuropharmacology 21: 687–693, 1982.
 159. McCulloch, J., and L. Edvinsson. Cerebral circulatory and metabolic effects of vasoactive intestinal polypeptide. Am. J. Physiol. 238 (Heart CircPhysiol. 7): H449–H456, 1980.
 160. McGiff, J. C., N. A. Terragno, K. U. Malik, and A. J. Lonigro. Release of a prostaglandin E‐like substance from canine kidney by bradykinin. Circ. Res. 31: 36–43, 1972.
 161. McNeill, T. H., and J. R. Sladek, Jr. Simultaneous monoamine histofluorescence and neuropeptide immunocytochemistry. II. Correlative distribution of catecholamine varicosities and magnocellular neurosecretory neurons in the rat supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. J. Comp. Neurol. 193: 1023–1033, 1980.
 162. Mellander, S., and B. Johansson. Control of resistance, exchange and capacitance function in the peripheral circulation. Pharmacol. Rev. 20: 117–196, 1968.
 163. Möhring, J., K. Glänzer, J. A. Maciel, Jr., R. Düsing, H. J. Kramer, R. Arbogast, and J. Koch‐Weser. Greatly enhanced pressor response to antidiuretic hormone in patients with impaired cardiovascular reflexes due to idiopathic orthostatic hypotension. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 2: 367–376, 1980.
 164. Monos, E., R. H. Cox, and L. H. Robertson. Direct effect of physiological doses of arginine vasopressin on the arterial wall in vivo. Am. J. Physiol. 234 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 3): H167–H172, 1978.
 165. Montani, J. P., J. F. Liard, J. Schoun, and J. Möhring. Hemodynamic effects of exogenous and endogenous vasopressin at low plasma concentrations in conscious dogs. Circ. Res. 47: 346–355, 1980.
 166. Moran, W. H., Jr., F. W. Miltenberger, W. A. Shuayb, and B. Zimmerman. The relationship of antidiuretic hormone to surgical stress. Surgery 56: 99–108, 1964.
 167. Morera, A. M., A. M. Cathiard, M. Laburthe, and J. M. Saez. Interaction of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) with a mouse adrenal cell line (Y‐1): specific binding and biological effects. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 90: 78–85, 1979.
 168. Moss, I. R., and E. M. Scarpelli. β‐Endorphin central depression of respiration and circulation. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 50: 1011–1016, 1981.
 169. Mukherjee, A., P. Kulkarani, S. M. McCann, and A. Negro‐Vilar. Evidence for the presence and characterization of angiotensin II receptors in rat anterior pituitary membranes. Endocrinology 110: 665–667, 1982.
 170. Nakano, J. Cardiovascular responses to neurohypophysial hormones. In: Handbook of Physiology. Endocrinology, edited by R. O. Greep and E. B. Astwood. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc, 1974, sect. 7, vol. IV, pt. 1, chapt. 15, p. 395–442.
 171. Nakano, J., and R. D. Fischer. Studies on the cardiovascular effects of synthetic oxytocin. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 142: 206–214, 1963.
 172. Nasjletti, A., and K. U. Malik. Interrelationships among prostaglandins and vasoactive substances. Med. Clin. North Am. 65: 881–889, 1981.
 173. Nicholas, T. E. Potentiation of the effects of noradrenaline and of sympathetic stimulation on the perfused rat caudal artery by angiotensin. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 22: 37–41, 1970.
 174. Nolasco, J. B. The effects of vasopressin on the systolic time intervals in the dog. Cardiology 61: 353–359, 1977.
 175. O'Mahony, D. P. The pharmacology of isolated venous muscle. Ir. J. Med. Sci. 6: 401–406, 1963.
 176. Ottesen, B., P. Staun‐Olsen, S. Gammeltoft, and J. Fahrenkrug. Receptors for vasoactive intestinal polypeptide on crude smooth muscle membranes from porcine uterus. Endocrinology 110: 2037–2043, 1982.
 177. Pals, D. T., and E. R. Micalizzi. Participation of prostaglandins in the vasodepressor effect of substance P. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 33: 110–111, 1981.
 178. Pang, C. C. Y., W. C. Wilcox, and J. R. McNeill. Hypophysectomy and saralasin on mesenteric vasoconstrictor response to vasopressin. Am. J. Physiol. 236 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 5): H200–H205, 1979.
 179. Pawlik, W. W., K. M. Walnus, and J. D. Fondocaro. Effects of methionine‐enkephalin on intestinal circulation and oxygen consumption. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 165: 26–31, 1980.
 180. Peach, M. J. Renin‐angiotensin system: biochemistry and mechanisms of action. Physiol. Rev. 57: 313–370, 1977.
 181. Peach, M. J. Molecular actions of angiotensin. Biochem. Pharmacol. 30: 2745–2751, 1981.
 182. Peters, W. P., P. A. Friedman, M. W. Johnson, and W. E. Mitch. Pressor effect of naloxone in septic shock. Lancet 1: 529–531, 1981.
 183. Phillips, M. I. Angiotensin in the brain. Neuroendocrinology 25: 354–377, 1978.
 184. Phillips, M. I., J. Weyhenmeyer, D. Felix, D. Ganten, and W. E. Hoffman. Evidence for an endogenous brain renin‐angiotensin system. Federation Proc. 38: 2260–2266, 1979.
 185. Quirion, R., F. Rioux, D. Regoli, and S. St. Pierre. Pharmacological studies of neurotensin, several fragments and analogues in the isolated perfused rat heart. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 66: 257–266, 1980.
 186. Rasmussen, S. N. Effects of antidiuretic hormone on intrarenal red cell plasma volumes in the diuretic rat. Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 361: 69–73, 1975.
 187. Reid, I. A. Is there a brain renin‐angiotensin system? Circ. Res. 41: 147–153, 1977.
 188. Reid, I. A., V. L. Brooks, C. D. Rudolph, and L. C. Keil. Analysis of the actions of angiotensin on the central nervous system of conscious dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 243 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 2): R82–R91, 1982.
 189. Reubi, J.‐C., J. Rivier, M. Perrin, M. Brown, and W. Vale. Specific high affinity binding sites for somatostatin‐28 on pancreatic β‐cells: differences with brain somatostatin receptors. Endocrinology 110: 1049–1051, 1982.
 190. Rhodes, C. H., J. I. Morrell, and D. W. Pfaff. Immunohistochemical analysis of magnocellular elements in rat hypothalamus: distribution and numbers of cells containing neurophysin, oxytocin, and vasopressin. J. Comp. Neurol. 198: 45–64, 1981.
 191. Richardson, P. D. I., and P. G. Withrington. The effects of intra‐arterial and intraportal injections of vasopressin on the simultaneously perfused hepatic arterial and portal venous vascular beds of the dog. Circ. Res. 43: 496–503, 1978.
 192. Rioux, F., R. Quirion, S. St. Pierre, D. Regoli, F. B. Jolicoeur, F. Belanger, and A. Barbeau. The hypotensive effect of centrally administered neurotensin in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 69: 241–247, 1981.
 193. Rix, E., K. Fuxe, D. Ganten, T. Hökfelt, V. Locatelli, K. Poulsen, G. Stock, and R. Taugner. Renin: immunocytochemistry in the rat and mouse brain. In: Central Nervous System Mechanisms in Hypertension, edited by J. P. Buckley and C. M. Ferrario. New York: Raven, 1981, p. 301–309.
 194. Robberecht, P., P. de Neef, M. Lammens, M. Deschodt‐Lanckman, and J. P. Christophe. Specific binding of vasoactive intestinal peptide to brain membranes from the guinea pig. Eur. J. Biochem. 90: 147–154, 1978.
 195. Rocha e Silva, M., Jr., and M. Rosenberg. The release of vasopressin in response to haemorrhage and its role in the mechanism of blood pressure regulation. J. Physiol. London 202: 535–557, 1969.
 196. Rosell, S., E. Burcher, D. Chang, and K. Folkers. Cardiovascular and metabolic actions of neurotensin and (Gln4)‐neurotensin. Acta Physiol. Scand. 98: 484–491, 1976.
 197. Roy, C., and D. A. Ausiello. Characterization of (8‐lysine)vasopressin binding sites on a pig kidney cell line (LLC‐PK1). J. Biol. Chem. 256: 3415–3422, 1981.
 198. Roy, C., D. Hall, M. Karish, and D. A. Ausiello. Relationship of (8‐lysine)vasopressin receptor transition to receptor functional properties in a pig kidney cell line (LLC‐PK1). J. Biol. Chem. 256: 3423–3427, 1981.
 199. Roy, C., A. S. Preston, and J. S. Handler. Insulin and serum increase the number of receptors for vasopressin in a kidney‐derived line of cells grown in a defined medium. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77: 5979–5983, 1980.
 200. Rozengurt, E., K. D. Brown, and P. Pettican. Vasopressin inhibition of epidermal growth factor binding to cultured mouse cells. J. Biol. Chem. 256: 716–722, 1981.
 201. Saameli, K. The circulatory actions of the neurohypophysial hormones and similar polypeptides. In: Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. Neurohypophysial Hormones and Similar Polypeptides, edited by B. Berde. Berlin: Springer‐Verlag, 1968, vol. 23, 545–612.
 202. Said, S. I. Metabolic functions of the pulmonary circulation. Circ. Res. 50: 325–333, 1982.
 203. Said, S. I., and V. Mutt. Polypeptide with broad biological activity: isolation from small intestine. Science 169: 1217–1218, 1970.
 204. Said, S. I., and J. C. Porter. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: release into hypophyseal portal blood. Life Sci. 24: 227–230, 1979.
 205. Said, S. I., and R. N. Rosenberg. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: abundant reactivity in neural cell lines and normal nervous tissue. Science 192: 907–908, 1976.
 206. Samnegård, H., L. Thulin, M. Andreen, G. Tyden, D. Hallberg, and S. Efendić. Circulatory effects of somatostatin in anaesthetized dogs. Acta. Chir. Scand. 145: 209–212, 1979.
 207. Saper, C. B., A. D. Loewy, L. W. Swanson, and W. M. Cowan. Direct hypothalamoautonomic connections. Brain Res. 117: 305–313, 1976.
 208. Sawchenko, P. E., and L. W. Swanson. Central noradrenergic pathways for the integration of hypothalamic neuroendocrine and autonomic responses. Science 214: 685–687, 1981.
 209. Sawyer, W. H. Biological assays for oxytocin and vasopressin. In: Methods for Medical Research, edited by J. H. Quastel. Chicago, IL: Year Book Med., 1961, vol. 9, p. 210–219.
 210. Sawyer, W. H. Neurohypophysial hormones. Pharmacol. Rev. 13: 255–277, 1961.
 211. Sawyer, W. H. Neurohypophysial principles of vertebrates. In: The Pituitary Gland, edited by G. W. Harris and B. T. Donovan. London: Butterworths, 1966, vol. 3, p. 307–329.
 212. Sawyer, W. H. Vasopressor, diuretic, and natriuretic responses by lungfish to arginine vasotocin. Am. J. Physiol. 218: 1789–1794, 1970.
 213. Sawyer, W. H., P. K. T. Pang, J. Seto, and M. McEnroe. Vasopressin analogs that antagonize antidiuretic responses by rats to the antidiuretic hormone. Science 212: 49–51, 1981.
 214. Schally, A. V. Aspects of hypothalamic regulation of the pituitary gland: its implications for the control of reproductive processes. Science 202: 18–28, 1978.
 215. Scharrer, E., and B. Scharrer. Hormones produced by neurosecretory cells. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 10: 183–240, 1954.
 216. Schaz, K., G. Stock, W. Simon, K.‐H. Schlor, T. Unger, R. Rockhold, and D. Ganten. Enkephalin effects on blood pressure, heart rate and baroreceptor reflex. Hypertension 2: 395–407, 1980.
 217. Schmid, P. G., F. M. Abboud, M. G. Wendling, E. S. Ramberg, A. L. Mark, D. D. Heistad, and J. W. Eckstein. Regional vascular effects of vasopressin: plasma levels and circulatory responses. Am. J. Physiol. 227: 998–1004, 1974.
 218. Schmid, P. G., F. M. Sharabi, H. Matsuguchi, J. Schmidt‐Davis, and D. D. Lund. Vasopressin and neurogenic control of the circulation. In: Salt and Hypertension, edited by J. Iwai. New York: Igaku‐Shoin, 1982, p. 203–230.
 219. Schrauwen, E., and A. Houvenaghel. Influence of substance P on mesenteric hemodynamics in the pig. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 242: 315–317, 1979.
 220. Schrauwen, E., and A. Houvenaghel. Substance P: a powerful intestinal vasodilator in the pig. Pfluegers Arch. 386: 281–284, 1980.
 221. Schultzberg, M., T. Hökfelt, G. Nilsson, L. Terenius, J. F. Rehfeld, M. Brown, R. Elde, M. Goldstein, and S. Said. Distribution of peptide‐ and catecholamine‐containing neurons in the gastro‐intestinal tract of rat and guinea‐pig: immunohistochemical studies with antisera to substance P, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, enkephalins, somatostatin, gastrin/cholecystokinin, neurotensin and dopamine β‐hydroxylase. Neuroscience 5: 689–744, 1980.
 222. Schumann, H. J., K. Starke, and U. Werner. Interactions of inhibitors of noradrenaline uptake and angiotensin on the sympathetic nerves of the isolated rabbit heart. Br. J. Pharmacol. 39: 390–397, 1970.
 223. Share, L. Vasopressin, its bioassay and the physiological control of its release. Am. J. Med. 42: 701–712, 1967.
 224. Share, L. Control of plasma ADH titer in hemorrhage: role of atrial and arterial receptors. Am. J. Physiol. 215: 1384–1389, 1968.
 225. Shimizu, T., and N. Taira. Assessment of the effects of vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) on blood flow throughout salivation of the dog salivary gland in comparison with those of secretin, glucagon and acetylcholine. Br. J. Pharmacol. 65: 683–687, 1979.
 226. Simpson, J. B. The circumventricular organs and the central actions of angiotensin. Neuroendocrinology 32: 248–256, 1981.
 227. Sirett, N., A. S. McLean, J. J. Bray, and J. I. Hubbard. Distribution of angiotensin II receptors in rat brain. Brain Res. 122: 299–312, 1977.
 228. Slater, E. E. Brain renin: progress in research. In: Central Nervous System Mechanisms in Hypertension, edited by J. Buckley and C. Ferrario. New York: Raven, 1981, p. 293–300.
 229. Snyder, S. H. Brain peptides as neurotransmitters. Science 209: 976–983, 1980.
 230. Sofroniew, M. V., and A. Weindl. Central nervous system distribution of vasopressin, oxytocin, and neurophysin. In: Endogenous Peptides and Learning and Memory Processes, edited by J. L. Martinez, B. B. Jensin, H. Messing, H. Righter, and J. L. McGaugh. New York: Academic, 1981, p. 327–369.
 231. Somlyo, A. V., R. L. Sandberg, and A. P. Somlyo. Pharmacologically heterogeneous smooth muscle cell distribution in blood vessels. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 149: 106–112, 1965.
 232. Somlyo, A. P., and A. V. Somlyo. Vascular smooth muscle. II. Pharmacology of normal and hypertensive vessels. Pharmacol. Rev. 22: 249–353, 1970.
 233. Somlyo, A. V., C.‐Y. Woo, and A. P. Somlyo. Responses of nerve‐free vessels to vasoactive amines and polypeptides. Am. J. Physiol. 208: 748–753, 1965.
 234. Sumners, C., M. I. Phillips, and E. M. Richards. A central pressor action of neurotensin in conscious rats. Hypertension 4: 888–893, 1982.
 235. Svensjö, E., and K.‐E. Arfors. Dimensions of postcapillary venules sensitive to bradykinin and histamine‐induced leakage of macromolecules. Upsala J. Med. Sci. 84: 47–60, 1979.
 236. Swanson, L. W. Immunochemical evidence for a neurophysin‐containing autonomic pathway arising in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. Brain Res. 128: 346–353, 1977.
 237. Swanson, L. W., and P. E. Sawchenko. Paraventricular nucleus: a site for the integration of neuroendocrine and autonomic mechanisms. Neuroendocrinology 31: 410–417, 1980.
 238. Swanson, L. W., P. E. Sawchenko, S. J. Wiegand, and J. L. Price. Separate neurons in the paraventricular nucleus project to the median eminence and to the medulla or spinal cord. Brain Res. 198: 190–195, 1980.
 239. Szczepanska‐Sadowska, E. Hemodynamic effects of a moderate increase of the plasma vasopressin level in conscious dogs. Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 338: 313–322, 1973.
 240. Takhar, A. P. S., and C. J. Kirk. Stimulation of inorganic‐phosphate incorporation into phosphatidylinositol in rat thoracic aorta mediated through V1‐vasopressin receptors. Biochem. J. 194: 167–172, 1981.
 241. Tanaka, M., E. R. deKloe de Wied, D., and D. H. G. Versteeg. Arginine8‐vasopressin affects catecholamine metabolism in specific brain nuclei. Life Sci. 20: 1799–1808, 1977.
 242. Taylor, D. P., and C. B. Pert. Vasoactive intestinal polypeptide: specific binding to rat brain membranes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76: 660–664, 1979.
 243. Terragno, N. A. Prostaglandins, antidiuretic hormone and renin angiotensin system. Hypertension 3, Suppl. 2: 65–70, 1981.
 244. Thurau, K., P. Deetjen, and K. Kramer. Hämodynamik des Nierenmarks. II. Mitteilung. Pfluegers Arch. 270: 270–285, 1960.
 245. Tonoue, T., and T. Nomoto. Rapid communication: central nervous system mediated stimulation by thyrotropin‐releasing hormone of microcirculation in thyroid gland of rats. Endocrinol. Jpn. 26: 749–752, 1979.
 246. Trippodo, N. C. Total circulatory capacity in the rat: effects of epinephrine and vasopressin on compliance and unstressed volume. Circ. Res. 49: 923–931, 1981.
 247. Tsakiris, A., U. P. Haemmerli, and A. Bühlmann. Reduction of portal venous pressure in cirrhotic patients with bleeding oesophageal varices by administration of a vasopressin derivative, phenylalanine2‐lysine8‐vasopressin. Am. J. Med. 36: 825–839, 1964.
 248. Tsuru, H., N. Ishikawa, and T. Shigei. Responsiveness of isolated dog veins to bradykinin and other bioactive peptides: distribution of sensitivity to bradykinin and possible correlation with genesis of the venous system. Blood Vessels 13: 238–248, 1976.
 249. Uhl, G. R., R. R. Goodman, M. J. Kuhar, S. R. Childers, and S. H. Snyder. Immunohistochemical mapping of enkephalin containing cell bodies, fibers, and nerve terminals in the brain stem of the rat. Brain Res. 166: 75–94, 1979.
 250. Varma, S., B. P. Jaju, and K. P. Bhargava. Mechanism of vasopressin‐induced bradycardia in dogs. Circ. Res. 24: 787–792, 1969.
 251. Versteeg, C. A. M., B. Bohus, and W. De Jong. Inhibitory effects of neuropeptides on centrally evoked pressor responses. In: Prophylactic Approach to Hypertensive Diseases, edited by Y. Yamori, W. Lovenberg, and E. D. Freis. New York: Raven, 1979, p. 329–335.
 252. Versteeg, D. H. G., E. R. de Kloet Van Wimersma‐Greidanus, T., and D. de Wied. Vasopressin modulates the activity of catecholamine containing neurons in specific brain regions. Neurosci. Lett. 11: 69–73, 1979.
 253. Wagner, H. N., Jr., and E. Braunwald. The pressor effect of the antidiuretic principle of the posterior pituitary in orthostatic hypotension. J. Clin. Invest. 35: 1412–1418, 1956.
 254. Wahren, J., and P. Felig. Influence of somatostatin on carbohydrate disposal and absorption in diabetes mellitus. Lancet 2: 1213–1216, 1976.
 255. Watson, S. J., H. Akil, W. Fischli, A. Goldstein, E. Zimmerman, and G. Nilaver. Dynorphin and vasopressin: common localization in magnocellular neurons. Science 216: 85–87, 1982.
 256. Webb, R. C., and D. F. Bohr. Regulation of vascular tone, molecular mechanisms. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 24: 213–242, 1981.
 257. Wei, E. T., A. Lee, and J. K. Chang. Cardiovascular effects of peptides related to the enkephalins and β‐casomorphin. Life Sci. 26: 1517–1522, 1980.
 258. Weinstein, H., R. M. Berne, and H. Sachs. Vasopressin in blood: effect of hemorrhage. Endocrinology 66: 712–718, 1960.
 259. Wiegant, V. M., H. Zwiers, and W. H. Gispen. Neuropeptides and brain cAMP and phosphoproteins. Pharmacol. Ther. 12: 463–490, 1981.
 260. Ylitalo, P., P. Ertama, and L. Ertama. The poor reactivity of retinal vessels to systematic administration vasoactive agents in pentobarbital anaesthetised rats. Acta Physiol. Scand. 100: 122–125, 1977.
 261. Yukimura, T., G. Stock, H. Stumpf, T. Unger, and D. Ganten. Effects of (D‐Ala2)‐methionine enkephalin on blood pressure, heart rate and baroreceptor sensitivity in conscious cats. Hypertension 3: 528–533, 1981.
 262. Zimmerman, B. G. Evaluation of peripheral and central components of action of angiotensin on the sympathetic nervous system. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 158: 1–10, 1967.
 263. Zimmerman, B. G., and J. Gisslen. Pattern of renal vasoconstriction and transmitter release during sympathetic stimulation in the presence of angiotensin and cocaine. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 163: 320–329, 1968.
 264. Zimmerman, B. G., S. K. Gomer, and J. C. Lioa. Action of angiotensin on vascular adrenergic nerve endings: facilitation of norepinephrine release. Federation Proc. 31: 1344–1350, 1972.
 265. Zimmerman, B. G., and J. Gomez. Increased response to sympathetic stimulation in the cutaneous vasculature in the presence of angiotensin. Int. J. Neuropharmacol. 4: 185–193, 1965.
 266. Zimmerman, E. A. The organization of oxytocin and vasopressin pathways. In: Neurosecretion and Brain Peptides, edited by J. G. Martin, S. Reichlin, and K. L. Bick. New York: Raven, 1981, p. 63–75.
 267. Zimmerman, E. A., and J. L. Antunes. Organization of the hypothalamic‐pituitary system: current concepts from immunocytochemical studies. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 24: 807–819, 1976.
 268. Zimmerman, E. A., P. W. Carmel, M. K. Husain, M. Ferin, M. Tannebaum, A. G. Frantz, and A. G. Robinson. Vasopressin and neurophysin: high concentrations in monkey hypophyseal portal blood. Science 182: 925–927, 1973.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Peptides and Blood Vessels
 

How to Cite

Phillip G. Schmid, Fouad M. Sharabi, M. Ian Phillips. Peptides and Blood Vessels. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 8: Handbook of Physiology, The Cardiovascular System, Peripheral Circulation and Organ Blood Flow: 815-835. First published in print 1983. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp020322