Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Control of Breathing in Ectothermic Vertebrates

Graham Shelton, David R. Jones, William K. Milsom

10.1002/cphy.cp030228

Source: Supplement 11: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Control of Breathing

Originally published: 1986

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Breathing Patterns
1.1 Rhythmic Breathing in Unimodal Aquatic Exchange
1.2 Ram Ventilation in Unimodal Aquatic Exchange
1.3 Periodic Breathing in Bimodal Exchange
1.4 Periodic Breathing in Unimodal Aerial Exchange
2 Breathing and Metabolism
3 Rhythmic Breathing: Control in Unimodal Aquatic Systems
3.1 Central Pattern Generation
3.2 Responses to Mechanoreceptor Input
3.3 Responses to Chemoreceptor Input
4 Periodic Breathing: Control in Bimodal and Unimodal Aerial Systems
4.1 Pattern Generation
4.2 Role of Peripheral Input in Pattern Generation
4.3 Responses to Chemoreceptor Input
5 Conclusion
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Relationships between partial pressures of O2 (Po2) and CO2 (Pco2) in aquatic and aerial convective systems. Dashed lines, respiratory exchange ratio (R) lines showing possible combinations of Po2 and Pco2 in unimodal air or water exchange systems working in steady state with continuous ventilation and a metabolic respiratory quotient (RQ) of 0.85. Slopes of air and water R lines differ becauseand βco2 > βo2, in water, whereas βco2 = βo2 in air [where is rate of gas uptake or output, capacitance coefficient (β) is increment of concentration per unit increment of partial pressure (β = C/P), and is flow rate of external medium]. Actual Po2 and Pco2 values in alveolar gas or opercular water depend on relationship between and . Points on air and water lines, values for mammals and trout (17°C) breathing at rest under normal conditions. Solid lines, fluctuations in alveolar gas composition during intermittent ventilation in unimodal [tortoise 71] and bimodal [clawed toad 470] animals. The Pco1 − Po2 relationships in bimodal breathers are impossible to derive theoretically. Shaded area, general range. Air exchange ratio is less than and water exchange ratio is greater than metabolic RQ in bimodal animals.
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Rhythmic breathing patterns in fish. A: movements of operculum and pressures measured in buccal and opercular cavities of roach (Leuciscus rutilus). Differential pressure between buccal and opercular cavities drives water across gill epithelium (G. Shelton and G. M. Hughes, unpublished observations). B: pressures measured in orobranchial (≡ buccal) cavity and 5th parabranchial cavity (within gill slit but outside gills) of dogfish (Scyliorhinus canicula). Differential pressure relationships are very similar to those of the teleost.

From Hughes 244
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Development of arrhythmic breathing patterns in fish. A: effect of differential levels of hypoxia on breathing movements in carp. Pio2, partial pressure of inspired O2.

From Lomholt and Johansen 351. B: effect of different swimming velocities on breathing movements in bluefish. From Roberts 441
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Breathing patterns in fish with lungs or air bladders. A: pressures measured in buccal and opercular cavities of Protopterus aethiopicus. Markers beneath opercular pressure trace indicate air‐breathing movements. Between air breaths, gill‐ventilating movements vary in frequency and amplitude. B: pressures measured in air bladder of Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus. Note that pressure is always above atmospheric and that more than 1 buccal oscillation occurs in each ventilating cycle. C: pressures measured in air bladder of Arapaima gigas. Note that each ventilation cycle consists of a single pressure change that falls briefly below atmospheric; it is suggested that the bladder is ventilated by an aspiration pump.

A from McMahon 368; B and C from Farrell and Randall 150
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Two cycles of lung ventilation in clawed toad (Xenopus laevis). Pressures are measured in buccal cavity (BP) and the lung (LP). Flow at nares (F) is measured by blow‐hole pneumotachograph. Note that lung pressures are always above atmospheric.

From Brett and Shelton 62
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Breathing in bullfrog Rana catesbeiana Diagrams show main features of jet‐stream hypothesis and argon‐washout experiment. Gas leaves the lungs (L) via nares in coherent stream that restricts mixing with fresh air in buccal cavity (B). Nostrils then close and fresh air is pumped from buccal cavity into the lung. Washout experiment shows changes of argon concentration in gas taken continuously from sample tube (S) in rubber face mask covering top of head and nostrils. During buccal ventilations (unlabelled cycles), argon concentration of S falls as argon‐O2 mixture in experimental chamber is replaced with air (troughs of oscillations) and argon concentration in B also falls (peaks). During lung ventilations (V), the rapid rise in argon concentration followed by a more gradual decline is evidence for pocket of gas in B being bypassed by gas from L.

Adapted from Gans et al. 165. Copyright 1969 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Breathing patterns in Rana pipiens are shown by pressures measured in buccal cavity and lung. Buccal oscillations, lung ventilations, and 5 sequences of lung inflation can be seen.

From West and Jones 528
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Breathing patterns in Xenopus laevis at 25°C recorded by pneumotachograph on blow hole at which animals surfaced to breathe. A and B: discrete breathing bursts followed by dives. Bursts change into more prolonged surface visits at end of B. C: taken 24 h later from same animal as B, shows breathing bout during which animal remained at surface, with its nostrils in air, ventilating its lungs at irregular intervals. D: prolonged dives interrupted by single ventilations. This behavior is seen when animal is disturbed and is caused particularly by threat at surface. (G. Shelton, unpublished observations.)
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Breathing movements in Caiman sclerops (A) and Alligator mississippiensis (B) as recorded by impedance pneumography, showing movements of thoracic wall, and body plethysmography, showing changes in total body volume. Inspiration causes upward deflection in all records. There is no change in body volume at end of inspiration even though impedance traces show inward movement of thoracic wall. A breathing cycle is a simple diphasic process.

From Naifeh et al. 384
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Variations in breathing patterns found in Atlantic loggerhead turtle [Caretta caretta (A)], Tokay lizard [Gekko gecko, (B)], and western painted turtle [Chrysemys picta (C)]. Predominantly, Caretta takes single breaths, Gekko breathe in bursts containing a few breaths, and bursts in Chrysemys contain many breaths. At different times all 3 species may exhibit arrhythmic breathing patterns (line 1) or relatively rhythmic, though periodic, patterns (line 2). Lizard and painted turtle may also show continuous breathing (line 3) when stressed. (W. K. Milsom, unpublished observations.)
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Timing of muscular activity during respiratory cycle of trout. Cycle is divided into 18 equal time intervals, and height of block within each interval indicates number of times an active electromyogram was observed. Muscles were usually active during either adduction or abduction phases. Only sternohyoideus (sternohyoid was observed to be active at all times during cycle. Add. mand., adductor mandibulae; Add. a.p.o., adductor arcus palatini et operculi; Lev. hyom., levator hyomandibulae; Pro. hyom., protractor hyoidei; Dil. oper., dilator operculi.

From Bamford 21
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Projection onto dorsal surface of location of respiratory neurons within brain stem of teleosts. Left: main sites (in black) located below paired optic lobes and in medulla below cerebellum and facial lobe. Right: main interconnections (arrows). Dashed lines (T), area defined as essential for normal rhythmic breathing by transection experiments. III m, oculomotor nucleus; t, tegmental respiratory neurons; Rf, reticular formation; V m, trigeminal motor nucleus; V d, descending trigeminal nucleus; VII m, facial motor nucleus; IX m, glossopharyngeal motor nucleus; VII i, intermediate facial nucleus; X m, vagal motor nucleus; P, muscle proprioceptive input; X, vagal sensory input.

Adapted from Ballintijn 14
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Respiratory interneurons and motoneurons in carp. Cross‐correlation and signal‐averaging techniques establish temporal relationships between medullary neuron discharge and specific components in respiratory muscle electromyograms (EMGs). Top: A and B, recordings of EMG discharges from 1, adductor mandibulae (Add. mand.); 2, levator hyomandibulae (Lev. hyom.); 3, dilator operculi (Dil. oper.); and of activity from 4, medulla showing 3 distinct respiratory neurons. High‐amplitude neuron (b) could be correlated with component occurring after 4.3‐ms delay in Add. mand. and was therefore presumed to be a motoneuron. I, averaged response in muscle, with neuron b as trigger. Low‐amplitude neuron (a) showed no such temporal correlation and was not an Add. mand. motoneuron. After 7 min, neuron b stopped firing and neuron c became active in opposite breathing phase. II and III, averaged responses showing that c was not a motoneuron of Lev. hyom. or Dil. oper. Bottom: 2 experiments. IV, good correlation with short delay (i) was found between a medullary neuron and averaged activity from Lev. hyom. After slight electrode displacement, further correlation was found with long delay (ii) between another neuron and the same muscle. First neuron was presumed to be a motoneuron and the second an interneuron. V, good correlation with averaged activity from EMG of Dil. oper., again with a long delay (iii), suggesting that trigger must be an interneuron.

Adapted from Ballintijn and Alink 15
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Relationship between gill ventilation and partial pressure of O2 of inhaled water (Pio2) in 4 teleosts: juvenile catfish Ictalurus punctatus 177, carp Cyprinus carpio 351, sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus 70, and rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri 428. Four lower panels, contribution of breathing rate (dotted lines) and stroke volume (solid lines) to change in gill ventilation. In normoxic carp, breathing is arrhythmic and large increase in rate in hypoxia is due to breathing becoming continuous 351.
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Time relationships between hypoxic stimulus and responses seen in teleost fish. A: time course in seconds of fall in Po2 in water from regions indicated (w, prebranchial water; I, buccal water; E, exhaled water) and of appearance of cardioventilatory response (R) after turning tap to admit hypoxic water.

From Eclancher 135. B: increased breathing frequency and ventilation pressures recorded in buccal cavity of trout in response to rapidly induced hypoxia. Electrode in water near animal's mouth signals first appearance of decrease in Pio2. From Bamford 21
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Relationship between water flow over gills and arterial O2 content of dorsal aortic blood in Salmo gairdneri. Horizontal and vertical bars indicate ±SEM. Number by each point, corresponding Pao2 in kPa. Arterial O2 content was changed by bubbling n2, CO2, and/or O2 into water containing fish or by making fish anemic by withdrawing red blood cells.

Adapted from Smith and Jones 479 and Randall 420
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Effects of NaCN injection on teleost chemoreceptors. Top: traces show effects of injecting 6 μg NaCN into ventral aorta of 300‐g trout on electromyogram (EMG) from an opercular muscle, integrated EMG (EMGi) and electrocardiogram (ECG). Top trace, 1‐s time marker. There was 6.2‐s latent period from start of injection, but by 10 s from start, ventilatory activity increased 3 times. Start of ventilatory response (center arrow) also corresponded with onset of hypoxic bradycardia. Bottom: comparison of effects of injecting 6 μg NaCN intravascularly into 350‐g trout (at 13°C) exposed to 3 levels of partial pressure of O2 in water (Pwo2). Stimulation of ventilatory activity (shown as EMGi in arbitrary units) is greatly reduced by simultaneous hyperoxia (Pwo2 = 210 Torr and 540 Torr). Each bar of histogram of EMGi represents 10 cycles of ventilation.

From Eclancher and Dejours 136
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Fluctuations in Pao2 and Paco2 and femoral artery Pao2 and Paco2 during intermittent breathing in unrestrained freely diving turtle Pseudemys scripta. Shaded vertical bars, brief bouts of surfacing and lung ventilation.

From Burggren and Shelton 71
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Control of breath duration and tidal volume (Vt) in turtles. Top: mean inspiratory duration (Ti) as function of inspired CO2 concentration (Fico2) in intact (open columns) and bilaterally vagotomized (shaded columns) turtles (Chrysemys picta) (W. K. Milsom, unpublished observations). Bottom: relationship between inspiratory duration and reciprocal of inspiratory flow rate (Vt · Ti−1 in ml · s−1) in intact (open circles) and vagotomized (filled circles) turtles breathing air. Regression equation describes correlation for intact animals. Slope of line equals Vt. No significant correlation exists after vagotomy.

From Milsom and Jones 375
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Effects of environmental O2 and CO2 on ventilation in 3 facultative (Erythrinus, Piabucina, and Umbra) and 1 obligate (Trichogaster) air‐breathing fish. A: relationships between aquatic Po2 and Pco2 and type of breathing shown by single specimen of Erythrinus sp. at 26°C. Suggested reasons for different breathing behaviors are: high Pco2 causes opercular flaps to close (A); low Po2 causes O2 loss to water if gills are ventilated (B); Po2 in water is inadequate to saturate blood with O2 (C); Pco2 stimulates air breathing (D); aquatic breathing is sufficient for requirements (E); gill ventilation is insufficient to saturate blood (F); and low Pco2 is insufficient to stimulate gill ventilation (G).

From Willmer 539. B: combined effects of aquatic Po2 and Pco2 on air‐breathing rate of Piabucina festae. [From Graham et al. 193.] C: relationship between air convection requirement and ventilation of suprabranchial chamber () with air in Trichogaster trichopterus at 27°C. Labeled areas, locations of data points from 5 animals in hypoxic water (Po2 = 60 Torr), hypoxic gas (Po2 = 60 Torr), and hypercapnic water (Pco2 = 21 Torr); all treatments caused significantly higher than control values (breathing air and air‐saturated water). Though total O2 consumption was not changed significantly, hypoxic and hypercapnic water increased and hypoxic gas decreased O2 uptake from suprabranchial chamber as compared with control values, thus affecting air convection requirement. [From Burggren 66.] D: effect of progressive aquatic hypoxia (25°C) on frequencies of air and water breathing in Umbra limi. Lines, averages of data drawn from 10 fish. From Gee 173


Figure 1.

Relationships between partial pressures of O2 (Po2) and CO2 (Pco2) in aquatic and aerial convective systems. Dashed lines, respiratory exchange ratio (R) lines showing possible combinations of Po2 and Pco2 in unimodal air or water exchange systems working in steady state with continuous ventilation and a metabolic respiratory quotient (RQ) of 0.85. Slopes of air and water R lines differ becauseand βco2 > βo2, in water, whereas βco2 = βo2 in air [where is rate of gas uptake or output, capacitance coefficient (β) is increment of concentration per unit increment of partial pressure (β = C/P), and is flow rate of external medium]. Actual Po2 and Pco2 values in alveolar gas or opercular water depend on relationship between and . Points on air and water lines, values for mammals and trout (17°C) breathing at rest under normal conditions. Solid lines, fluctuations in alveolar gas composition during intermittent ventilation in unimodal [tortoise 71] and bimodal [clawed toad 470] animals. The Pco1 − Po2 relationships in bimodal breathers are impossible to derive theoretically. Shaded area, general range. Air exchange ratio is less than and water exchange ratio is greater than metabolic RQ in bimodal animals.



Figure 2.

Rhythmic breathing patterns in fish. A: movements of operculum and pressures measured in buccal and opercular cavities of roach (Leuciscus rutilus). Differential pressure between buccal and opercular cavities drives water across gill epithelium (G. Shelton and G. M. Hughes, unpublished observations). B: pressures measured in orobranchial (≡ buccal) cavity and 5th parabranchial cavity (within gill slit but outside gills) of dogfish (Scyliorhinus canicula). Differential pressure relationships are very similar to those of the teleost.

From Hughes 244


Figure 3.

Development of arrhythmic breathing patterns in fish. A: effect of differential levels of hypoxia on breathing movements in carp. Pio2, partial pressure of inspired O2.

From Lomholt and Johansen 351. B: effect of different swimming velocities on breathing movements in bluefish. From Roberts 441


Figure 4.

Breathing patterns in fish with lungs or air bladders. A: pressures measured in buccal and opercular cavities of Protopterus aethiopicus. Markers beneath opercular pressure trace indicate air‐breathing movements. Between air breaths, gill‐ventilating movements vary in frequency and amplitude. B: pressures measured in air bladder of Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus. Note that pressure is always above atmospheric and that more than 1 buccal oscillation occurs in each ventilating cycle. C: pressures measured in air bladder of Arapaima gigas. Note that each ventilation cycle consists of a single pressure change that falls briefly below atmospheric; it is suggested that the bladder is ventilated by an aspiration pump.

A from McMahon 368; B and C from Farrell and Randall 150


Figure 5.

Two cycles of lung ventilation in clawed toad (Xenopus laevis). Pressures are measured in buccal cavity (BP) and the lung (LP). Flow at nares (F) is measured by blow‐hole pneumotachograph. Note that lung pressures are always above atmospheric.

From Brett and Shelton 62


Figure 6.

Breathing in bullfrog Rana catesbeiana Diagrams show main features of jet‐stream hypothesis and argon‐washout experiment. Gas leaves the lungs (L) via nares in coherent stream that restricts mixing with fresh air in buccal cavity (B). Nostrils then close and fresh air is pumped from buccal cavity into the lung. Washout experiment shows changes of argon concentration in gas taken continuously from sample tube (S) in rubber face mask covering top of head and nostrils. During buccal ventilations (unlabelled cycles), argon concentration of S falls as argon‐O2 mixture in experimental chamber is replaced with air (troughs of oscillations) and argon concentration in B also falls (peaks). During lung ventilations (V), the rapid rise in argon concentration followed by a more gradual decline is evidence for pocket of gas in B being bypassed by gas from L.

Adapted from Gans et al. 165. Copyright 1969 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science


Figure 7.

Breathing patterns in Rana pipiens are shown by pressures measured in buccal cavity and lung. Buccal oscillations, lung ventilations, and 5 sequences of lung inflation can be seen.

From West and Jones 528


Figure 8.

Breathing patterns in Xenopus laevis at 25°C recorded by pneumotachograph on blow hole at which animals surfaced to breathe. A and B: discrete breathing bursts followed by dives. Bursts change into more prolonged surface visits at end of B. C: taken 24 h later from same animal as B, shows breathing bout during which animal remained at surface, with its nostrils in air, ventilating its lungs at irregular intervals. D: prolonged dives interrupted by single ventilations. This behavior is seen when animal is disturbed and is caused particularly by threat at surface. (G. Shelton, unpublished observations.)



Figure 9.

Breathing movements in Caiman sclerops (A) and Alligator mississippiensis (B) as recorded by impedance pneumography, showing movements of thoracic wall, and body plethysmography, showing changes in total body volume. Inspiration causes upward deflection in all records. There is no change in body volume at end of inspiration even though impedance traces show inward movement of thoracic wall. A breathing cycle is a simple diphasic process.

From Naifeh et al. 384


Figure 10.

Variations in breathing patterns found in Atlantic loggerhead turtle [Caretta caretta (A)], Tokay lizard [Gekko gecko, (B)], and western painted turtle [Chrysemys picta (C)]. Predominantly, Caretta takes single breaths, Gekko breathe in bursts containing a few breaths, and bursts in Chrysemys contain many breaths. At different times all 3 species may exhibit arrhythmic breathing patterns (line 1) or relatively rhythmic, though periodic, patterns (line 2). Lizard and painted turtle may also show continuous breathing (line 3) when stressed. (W. K. Milsom, unpublished observations.)



Figure 11.

Timing of muscular activity during respiratory cycle of trout. Cycle is divided into 18 equal time intervals, and height of block within each interval indicates number of times an active electromyogram was observed. Muscles were usually active during either adduction or abduction phases. Only sternohyoideus (sternohyoid was observed to be active at all times during cycle. Add. mand., adductor mandibulae; Add. a.p.o., adductor arcus palatini et operculi; Lev. hyom., levator hyomandibulae; Pro. hyom., protractor hyoidei; Dil. oper., dilator operculi.

From Bamford 21


Figure 12.

Projection onto dorsal surface of location of respiratory neurons within brain stem of teleosts. Left: main sites (in black) located below paired optic lobes and in medulla below cerebellum and facial lobe. Right: main interconnections (arrows). Dashed lines (T), area defined as essential for normal rhythmic breathing by transection experiments. III m, oculomotor nucleus; t, tegmental respiratory neurons; Rf, reticular formation; V m, trigeminal motor nucleus; V d, descending trigeminal nucleus; VII m, facial motor nucleus; IX m, glossopharyngeal motor nucleus; VII i, intermediate facial nucleus; X m, vagal motor nucleus; P, muscle proprioceptive input; X, vagal sensory input.

Adapted from Ballintijn 14


Figure 13.

Respiratory interneurons and motoneurons in carp. Cross‐correlation and signal‐averaging techniques establish temporal relationships between medullary neuron discharge and specific components in respiratory muscle electromyograms (EMGs). Top: A and B, recordings of EMG discharges from 1, adductor mandibulae (Add. mand.); 2, levator hyomandibulae (Lev. hyom.); 3, dilator operculi (Dil. oper.); and of activity from 4, medulla showing 3 distinct respiratory neurons. High‐amplitude neuron (b) could be correlated with component occurring after 4.3‐ms delay in Add. mand. and was therefore presumed to be a motoneuron. I, averaged response in muscle, with neuron b as trigger. Low‐amplitude neuron (a) showed no such temporal correlation and was not an Add. mand. motoneuron. After 7 min, neuron b stopped firing and neuron c became active in opposite breathing phase. II and III, averaged responses showing that c was not a motoneuron of Lev. hyom. or Dil. oper. Bottom: 2 experiments. IV, good correlation with short delay (i) was found between a medullary neuron and averaged activity from Lev. hyom. After slight electrode displacement, further correlation was found with long delay (ii) between another neuron and the same muscle. First neuron was presumed to be a motoneuron and the second an interneuron. V, good correlation with averaged activity from EMG of Dil. oper., again with a long delay (iii), suggesting that trigger must be an interneuron.

Adapted from Ballintijn and Alink 15


Figure 14.

Relationship between gill ventilation and partial pressure of O2 of inhaled water (Pio2) in 4 teleosts: juvenile catfish Ictalurus punctatus 177, carp Cyprinus carpio 351, sturgeon Acipenser transmontanus 70, and rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri 428. Four lower panels, contribution of breathing rate (dotted lines) and stroke volume (solid lines) to change in gill ventilation. In normoxic carp, breathing is arrhythmic and large increase in rate in hypoxia is due to breathing becoming continuous 351.



Figure 15.

Time relationships between hypoxic stimulus and responses seen in teleost fish. A: time course in seconds of fall in Po2 in water from regions indicated (w, prebranchial water; I, buccal water; E, exhaled water) and of appearance of cardioventilatory response (R) after turning tap to admit hypoxic water.

From Eclancher 135. B: increased breathing frequency and ventilation pressures recorded in buccal cavity of trout in response to rapidly induced hypoxia. Electrode in water near animal's mouth signals first appearance of decrease in Pio2. From Bamford 21


Figure 16.

Relationship between water flow over gills and arterial O2 content of dorsal aortic blood in Salmo gairdneri. Horizontal and vertical bars indicate ±SEM. Number by each point, corresponding Pao2 in kPa. Arterial O2 content was changed by bubbling n2, CO2, and/or O2 into water containing fish or by making fish anemic by withdrawing red blood cells.

Adapted from Smith and Jones 479 and Randall 420


Figure 17.

Effects of NaCN injection on teleost chemoreceptors. Top: traces show effects of injecting 6 μg NaCN into ventral aorta of 300‐g trout on electromyogram (EMG) from an opercular muscle, integrated EMG (EMGi) and electrocardiogram (ECG). Top trace, 1‐s time marker. There was 6.2‐s latent period from start of injection, but by 10 s from start, ventilatory activity increased 3 times. Start of ventilatory response (center arrow) also corresponded with onset of hypoxic bradycardia. Bottom: comparison of effects of injecting 6 μg NaCN intravascularly into 350‐g trout (at 13°C) exposed to 3 levels of partial pressure of O2 in water (Pwo2). Stimulation of ventilatory activity (shown as EMGi in arbitrary units) is greatly reduced by simultaneous hyperoxia (Pwo2 = 210 Torr and 540 Torr). Each bar of histogram of EMGi represents 10 cycles of ventilation.

From Eclancher and Dejours 136


Figure 18.

Fluctuations in Pao2 and Paco2 and femoral artery Pao2 and Paco2 during intermittent breathing in unrestrained freely diving turtle Pseudemys scripta. Shaded vertical bars, brief bouts of surfacing and lung ventilation.

From Burggren and Shelton 71


Figure 19.

Control of breath duration and tidal volume (Vt) in turtles. Top: mean inspiratory duration (Ti) as function of inspired CO2 concentration (Fico2) in intact (open columns) and bilaterally vagotomized (shaded columns) turtles (Chrysemys picta) (W. K. Milsom, unpublished observations). Bottom: relationship between inspiratory duration and reciprocal of inspiratory flow rate (Vt · Ti−1 in ml · s−1) in intact (open circles) and vagotomized (filled circles) turtles breathing air. Regression equation describes correlation for intact animals. Slope of line equals Vt. No significant correlation exists after vagotomy.

From Milsom and Jones 375


Figure 20.

Effects of environmental O2 and CO2 on ventilation in 3 facultative (Erythrinus, Piabucina, and Umbra) and 1 obligate (Trichogaster) air‐breathing fish. A: relationships between aquatic Po2 and Pco2 and type of breathing shown by single specimen of Erythrinus sp. at 26°C. Suggested reasons for different breathing behaviors are: high Pco2 causes opercular flaps to close (A); low Po2 causes O2 loss to water if gills are ventilated (B); Po2 in water is inadequate to saturate blood with O2 (C); Pco2 stimulates air breathing (D); aquatic breathing is sufficient for requirements (E); gill ventilation is insufficient to saturate blood (F); and low Pco2 is insufficient to stimulate gill ventilation (G).

From Willmer 539. B: combined effects of aquatic Po2 and Pco2 on air‐breathing rate of Piabucina festae. [From Graham et al. 193.] C: relationship between air convection requirement and ventilation of suprabranchial chamber () with air in Trichogaster trichopterus at 27°C. Labeled areas, locations of data points from 5 animals in hypoxic water (Po2 = 60 Torr), hypoxic gas (Po2 = 60 Torr), and hypercapnic water (Pco2 = 21 Torr); all treatments caused significantly higher than control values (breathing air and air‐saturated water). Though total O2 consumption was not changed significantly, hypoxic and hypercapnic water increased and hypoxic gas decreased O2 uptake from suprabranchial chamber as compared with control values, thus affecting air convection requirement. [From Burggren 66.] D: effect of progressive aquatic hypoxia (25°C) on frequencies of air and water breathing in Umbra limi. Lines, averages of data drawn from 10 fish. From Gee 173
References
 1. Abe, A. S., and E. G. Mandes. The effect of inspired oxygen tension on oxygen uptake and tolerance to anoxia in the water snakes Helicops modestus and Liophis miliaris (Colubridae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 65: 459–463, 1980.
 2. Ackerman, R. A., and F. N. White. Cyclic carbon dioxide exchange in the turtle Pseudemys scripta. Physiol. Zool. 52: 378–389, 1979.
 3. Ackerman, R. A., and F. N. White. The effects of temperature on acid‐base balance and ventilation of the marine iguana. Respir. Physiol. 39: 133–147, 1980.
 4. Adams, W. E. The comparative morphology of the carotid body and carotid sinus. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1958.
 5. Adams, W. E. The carotid sinus‐body problem in the Chelonia (with a note on a foramen of Panizza in Dermochelys). Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 139: 28–37, 1962.
 6. Anthony, E. H. Survival of goldfish in presence of carbon monoxide. J. Exp. Biol. 38: 109–125, 1961.
 7. Asmussen, E., and M. Nielsen. Studies on the regulation of respiration in heavy work. Acta Physiol. Scand. 12: 171–188, 1946.
 8. Austin, J. H., F. W. Sunderman, and J. G. Camack. Studies in serum electrolyte composition and the pH of a poikilothermous animal at different temperatures. J. Biol. Chem. 72: 677–685, 1927.
 9. Auvergnat, R., and M. Secondat. Retentissement plasmatique de l'exercice musculaire chez la Carpe (Cyprinus carpio L.). C. R. Acad. Sci. 215: 92–94, 1942.
 10. Babák, E. Über die funktionnelle Anpassung der äussein Kiemen bein Sauerstoffmangel. Zentralbl. Physiol. 21: 97–99, 1907.
 11. Baglioni, S. Der Atmungsmechanismus der Fische. Ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Physiologie des Atemrhythmus. Z. Allg. Physiol. 7: 177–282, 1907.
 12. Ballintijn, C. M. Muscle coordination of the respiratory pump of the carp (Cyprinus carpio). J. Exp. Biol. 50: 569–591, 1969.
 13. Ballintijn, C. M. Efficiency, mechanics and motor control of fish respiration. Respir. Physiol. 14: 125–141, 1972.
 14. Ballintijn, C. M. Neural control of respiration in fishes and mammals. In: Proc. Congr. Eur. Soc. Comp. Physiol. Biochem., 3rd, Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands, 1981. Oxford, UK: Pergamon, 1982, p. 127–140.
 15. Ballintijn, C. M., and G. M. Alink. Identification of respiratory motor neurons in the carp and determination of their firing characteristics and interconnections. Bruin Res. 136: 261–276, 1977.
 16. Ballintijn, C. M., and O. S. Bamford. Proprioceptive motor control in fish respiration. J. Exp. Biol. 62: 99–114, 1975.
 17. Ballintijn, C. M., and G. M. Hughes. The muscular basis of the respiratory pumps in the trout. J. Exp. Biol. 43: 349–362, 1965.
 18. Ballintijn, C. M., P. G. M. Luiten, and P. J. W. Juch. Respiratory neuron activity in the mesencephalon, diencephalon and cerebellum of the carp. J. Comp. Physiol. 133: 131–139, 1979.
 19. Ballintijn, C. M., and J. L. Roberts. Neural control and proprioceptive load matching in reflex respiratory movements of fishes. Federation Proc. 35: 1983–1991, 1976.
 20. Ballintijn, C. M., B. L. Roberts, and P. G. M. Luiten. Respiratory responses to stimulation of branchial vagus nerve ganglia of a teleost fish. Respir. Physiol. 51: 241–257, 1983.
 21. Bamford, O. S. Oxygen reception in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 48: 69–76, 1974.
 22. Bamford, O. S. Respiratory neurones in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 48: 77–83, 1974.
 23. Bandurski, R. S., E. Bradstreet, and P. F. Scholander. Metabolic changes in the mud‐skipper during asphyxia or exercise. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 24: 271–274, 1968.
 24. Barets, A., S. Dunel, and P. Laurent. Infrastructure du plexus nerveux terminal de la pseudobranchie d'un téléostéen, Sander lucioperca. J. Microsc. Paris 9: 619–624, 1970.
 25. Bartholomew, G. A., and V. A. Tucker. Size, body temperature, thermal conductance, oxygen consumption, and heart rate in Australian varanid lizards. Physiol. Zool. 37: 341–354, 1964.
 26. Bartlett, P. N. Seasonal and Elevational Comparisons of Oxygen Consumption Rates in the Lizard Sceloporus occidentalis. Riverside: Univ. of California, 1970. Dissertation.
 27. von Baumgarten, R., and G. C. Salmoiraghi. Respiratory neurons in the goldfish. Arch. Ital. Biol. 100: 31–47, 1962.
 28. Beamish, F. W. H. Respiration of fishes with special emphasis on standard oxygen consumption. III. Influence of oxygen. Can. J. Zool. 42: 355–366, 1964.
 29. Belkin, D. A. Critical oxygen tensions in turtles (Abstract). Physiologist 8: 109, 1965.
 30. Benchetrit, G., J. Armand, and P. Dejours. Ventilatory chemoreflex drive in the tortoise. Respir. Physiol. 31: 183–191, 1977.
 31. Benchetrit, G., and P. Dejours. Ventilatory carbon dioxide drive in the tortoise Testudo horsfeldii. J. Exp. Biol. 87: 229–236, 1980.
 32. Bennett, A. F. The effect of activity on oxygen consumption, oxygen debt and heart rate in the lizards, Varanus gouldii and Sauromalus hispidus. J. Comp. Physiol. 79: 259–280, 1972.
 33. Bennett, A. F. Ventilation in two species of lizards during rest and activity. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 46: 653–672, 1973.
 34. Bennett, A. F. Blood physiology and oxygen transport during activity in two lizards Varanus gouldii and Sauromalus hispidus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 46: 673–690, 1973.
 35. Bennett, A. F. Activity metabolism of the lower vertebrates. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 400: 447–469, 1978.
 36. Bennett, A. F., and W. R. Dawson. Metabolism. In: Biology of the Reptilia, edited by C. Gans and W. R. Dawson. New York: Academic, vol. 5, p. 127–223, 1976.
 37. Bennett, A. F., W. R. Dawson, and G. A. Bartholomew. Effects of activity and temperature on aerobic and anaerobic metabolism in the Galapagos marine iguana. J. Comp. Physiol. 100: 317–329, 1975.
 38. Bennett, A. F., and P. Licht. Anaerobic metabolism during activity in lizards. J. Comp. Physiol. 81: 277–288, 1972.
 39. Berger, P. J., I. L. Gibbins, D. K. Hards, and L. J. Crosby. The distribution and ultrastructure of sensory elements in the baroreceptor region of the truncus arteriosus of the lizard Trachydosaurus rugosus. Cell Tissue Res. 226: 389–406, 1982.
 40. Bickler, P. E. Intracellular pH in lizard Dipsosaurus dorsalis in relation to changing body temperatures. J. Appl. Physiol: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 1466–1472, 1982.
 41. Bicudo, J. E. P. W., and K. Johansen. Respiratory gas exchange in the air breathing fish, Synbranchus marmoratus. Environ. Biol. Fishes 4: 55–64, 1979.
 42. Binet, L., and M. Bochet. Résistance à l'hyperoxie de la grenouille Rana esculenta maintenue dans l'oxygène à 100 pour cent durant 52 jours. J. Physiol. Paris 55: 405–412, 1963.
 43. Bishop, I. R., and G. E. H. Foxon. The mechanism of breathing in the South American lungfish, Lepidosiren paradoxa; a radiological study. J. Zool. 154: 263–271, 1968.
 44. Black, E. C. Hyperactivity as a lethal factor in fish. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 15: 573–586, 1958.
 45. Black, E. C., A. R. Connor, K. C. Lam, and W. G. Chiu. Changes in glycogen, pyruvate and lactate in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) during and following muscular activity. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 19: 409–436, 1962.
 46. Black, E. C., and L. Irving. The effect of carbon dioxide upon the oxygen capacity of the blood of the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). Trans. R. Soc. Can. Sect. 5: 29–32, 1937.
 47. Blažka, P. The anaerobic metabolism of fish. Physiol. Zool. 31: 117–128, 1958.
 48. Bornancin, M., G. De Renzis, and J. Maetz. Branchial Cl−transport, anion stimulated ATPase and acid‐base balance in Anguilla anguilla adapted to freshwater: effects of hyperoxia. J. Comp. Physiol. 117: 313–322, 1977.
 49. Boutilier, R. G. Gas Exchange and Transport During Intermittent Ventilation in the Aquatic Amphibian, Xenopus laevis. Norwich, UK: Univ. of East Anglia, 1981. Dissertation.
 50. Boutilier, R. G., P. Aughton, and G. Shelton. O2 and CO2 transport in relation to ventilation in the Atlantic mackerel, Scomber scombrus. Can. J. Zool. 62: 546–554, 1984.
 51. Boutilier, R. G., D. G. McDonald, and D. P. Toews. The effects of enforced activity on ventilation, circulation and blood acid‐base balance in the aquatic gill‐less urodele Cryptobranchus alleganiensis; a comparison with the semi‐terrestrial anuran Bufo marinus. J. Exp. Biol. 84: 289–302, 1980.
 52. Boutilier, R. G., D. J. Randall, G. Shelton, and D. P. toews. Acid‐base relationships in the blood of the toad Bufo marinus. I. The effects of environmental CO2. J. Exp. Biol. 82: 331–344, 1979.
 53. Boutilier, R. G., D. J. Randall, G. Shelton, and D. P. Toews. Acid‐base relationships in the blood of the toad Bufo marinus. II. The effects of dehydration. J. Exp. Biol. 82: 345–355, 1979.
 54. Boutilier, R. G., and D. P. Toews. The effect of progressive hypoxia on respiration in the toad Bufo marinus. J. Exp. Biol. 68: 99–107, 1977.
 55. Boutilier, R. G., and D. P. Toews. Respiratory properties of blood in a strictly aquatic and predominantly skin‐breathing urodele Cryptobranchus alleganiensis. Respir. Physiol. 46: 161–176, 1981.
 56. Boyer, D. R. Comparative effects of hypoxia on respiratory and cardiac function in reptiles. Physiol. Zool. 39: 307–316, 1966.
 57. Boyer, D. R. Interaction of temperature and hypoxia on respiratory and cardiac responses in the lizard Sauromalus obesus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 20: 437–447, 1967.
 58. Bradley, G. W., C. von Euler, I. Marttila, and B. Roos. A model of the central and reflex inhibition of inspiration in the cat. Biol. Cybern. 19: 105–116, 1975.
 59. Brett, J. R. The respiratory metabolism and swimming performance of young sockeye salmon. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 21: 1183–1226, 1964.
 60. Brett, J. R. The relation of size to rate of oxygen consumption and sustained swimming speed of sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 22: 1491–1501, 1965.
 61. Brett, J. R. The metabolic demand for oxygen in fish, particularly salmonids, and a comparison with other vertebrates. Respir. Physiol. 14: 151–170, 1972.
 62. Brett, S. S., and G. Shelton. Ventilatory mechanisms of the amphibian Xenopus laevis; the role of the buccal force pump. J. Exp. Biol. 80: 251–269, 1979.
 63. Brown, C. E., and B. S. Muir. Analysis of ram ventilation of fish gills with application to skipjack tuna (Katsuwonis pelamis). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27: 1637–1652, 1970.
 64. Bullock, T. H. Temperature adaptation in poikilothermic animals. Biol. Rev. Cambridge Philos. Soc. 30: 311–342, 1955.
 65. Burggren, W. W. A quantitative analysis of ventilation tachycardia and its control in two chelonians Pseudemys scripta and Testudo graeca. J. Exp. Biol. 63: 367–380, 1975.
 66. Burggren, W. W. Bimodal gas exchange during variation in environmental oxygen and carbon dioxide in the air breathing fish Trichogaster trichopterus. J. Exp. Biol. 82: 197–213, 1979.
 67. Burggren, W. W. “Air gulping” improves blood oxygen transport during aquatic hypoxia in the goldfish Carassius auratus. Physiol. Zool. 55: 327–334, 1982.
 68. Burggren, W. W., and J. N. Cameron. Anaerobic metabolism, gas exchange and acid‐base balance during hypoxic exposure in the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. J. Exp. Zool. 213: 405–416, 1980.
 69. Burggren, W. W., and M. S. Haswell. Aerial CO2 excretion in the obligate air breathing fish Trichogaster trichopterus: a role for carbonic anhydrase. J. Exp. Biol. 82: 215–225, 1979.
 70. Burggren, W. W., and D. J. Randall. Oxygen uptake and transport during hypoxic exposure in the sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus). Respir. Physiol. 34: 171–183, 1978.
 71. Burggren, W. W., and G. Shelton. Gas exchange and transport during intermittent breathing in chelonian reptiles. J. Exp. Biol. 82: 75–92, 1979.
 72. Burggren, W. W., and S. C. Wood. Respiration and acid‐base balance in the tiger salamander, Ambystoma tigrinum: influence of temperature acclimation and metamorphosis. J. Comp. Physiol. 144: 241–246, 1981.
 73. Burns, B. D., and G. C. Salmoiraghi. Repetitive firing of respiratory neurones during their burst activity. J. Neurophysiol. 23: 27–46, 1960.
 74. Burton, D. T. The anaerobic responses of brown bullhead catfish (Ictalurus nebulosus) during gradual hypoxia at two acclimation temperatures (Abstract). Am. Zool. 10: 519, 1970.
 75. Burton, D. T. Lactic and pyruvic acid change in bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque) during gradual hypoxia at two acclimation temperatures (5°C and 20°C). Assoc. Southeast Biol. Bull 17: 35, 1970.
 76. Burton, D. T., and A. M. Spehar. A re‐evaluation of the anaerobic end products of fresh‐water fish exposed to environmental hypoxia. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 40: 945–954, 1971.
 77. Butler, P. J., and J. D. Metcalfe. Control of respiration and circulation. In: Control Processes in Fish Physiology, edited by J. C. Rankin, T. J. Pitcher, and R. Duggan. New York: Wiley‐Interscience, 1983, p. 41–65.
 78. Butler, P. J., W. K. Milsom, and A. J Woakes. Respiratory, cardiovascular and metabolic adjustments during steady state swimming in the green turtle, Chelonia midas. J. Comp. Physiol. 154: 167–174, 1984.
 79. Butler, P. J., and E. W. Taylor. Response of the dogfish (Scyliorhinus canicula L.) to slowly induced and rapidly induced hypoxia. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 39: 307–323, 1971.
 80. Butler, P. J., and E. W. Taylor. The effect of progressive hypoxia on respiration in the dogfish (Scyliorhinus canicula) at different seasonal temperatures. J. Exp. Biol. 63: 117–130, 1975.
 81. Butler, P. J., E. W. Taylor, and W. Davison. The effect of long term, moderate hypoxia on acid‐base balance, plasma catecholamines and possible anaerobic end products in the unrestrained dogfish, Scyliorhinus canicula. J. Comp. Physiol. 132: 297–303, 1979.
 82. Butler, P. J., E. W. Taylor, and S. Short. The effect of sectioning cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X on the cardiac response of the dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula to environmental hypoxia. J. Exp. Biol. 69: 233–245, 1977.
 83. Caillouet, C. W., Jr.. Lactic acidosis in channel catfish. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 26: 15–23, 1968.
 84. Cameron, J. N. Oxygen dissociation characteristics of the blood of the rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 38: 699–704, 1971.
 85. Cameron, J. N. Regulation of blood pH in teleost fish. Respir. Physiol. 33: 129–144, 1978.
 86. Cameron, J. N., and J. J. Cech. Notes on the energy cost of gill ventilation. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 34: 447–455, 1970.
 87. Cameron, J. N., and J. C. Davis. Gas exchange in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) with varying blood oxygen capacity. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27: 1069–1085, 1970.
 88. Cameron, J. N., and G. A. Kormanik. Intracellular and extracellular acid‐base status as a function of temperature in the freshwater channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. J. Exp. Biol. 99: 127–142, 1982.
 89. Cameron, J. N., and D. J. Randall. The effect of increased ambient CO2 on arterial CO2 tension, CO2 content and pH in rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol. 57: 673–680, 1972.
 90. Cameron, J. N., and D. E. Wohlschlag. Respiratory response to experimentally induced anaemia in the pinfish (Lagodon rhomboides). J. Exp. Biol. 50: 307–317, 1969.
 91. Carter, G. S., Air breathing. In: The Physiology of Fishes, edited by M. E. Brown. New York: Academic, 1957, vol. 1, p. 65–79.
 92. Cohen, M. I. Discharge patterns of brain‐stem respiratory neurons in relation to carbon dioxide tension. J. Neurophysiol. 31: 142–165, 1968.
 93. Cohen, M. I. Neurogenesis of respiratory rhythm in the mammal. Physiol. Rev. 59: 1105–1173, 1979.
 94. Cohen, M. I., and J. L. Feldman. Models of respiratory phase‐switching. Federation Proc. 36: 2367–2374, 1977.
 95. Coulson, R. A., and T. Hernandez. Oxygen debt in reptiles: relationship between the time required for repayment and metabolic rate. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 65: 453–457, 1980.
 96. Courtice, G. P. Stimulation of carotid arterial chemoreceptors by hypoxia and hypercapnia in a lizard. In: Proc. Int. Congr. Physiol. Sci., 27th, Budapest, 1980, vol. 14, p. 368.
 97. Courtice, G. P. Respiration in the eastern water dragon Physignathus lesueurii (Agamidae). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 68: 429–436, 1981.
 98. Cox, C. B. Cutaneous respiration and the origin of the modern Amphibia. Proc. Linn. Soc. London 178: 37–47, 1967.
 99. Cragg, P. A. Ventilatory patterns and variables in rest and activity in the lizard Lacerta. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 60: 399–410, 1978.
 100. Crawford, E. C., Jr., and R. N. Gatz. Carbon dioxide tension and pH of the blood of the lizard, Sauromalus obesus, at different temperatures. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 47: 529–534, 1974.
 101. Crawford, E. C., Jr., and G. Kampe. Physiological responses of the lizard Sauromalus obesus to changes in ambient temperature. Am. J. Physiol. 220: 1256–1260, 1971.
 102. Crawshaw, L. I. Effect of rapid temperature change on mean body temperature and gill ventilation in carp. Am. J. Physiol. 231: 837–841, 1976.
 103. Crawshaw, L. I., H. T. Hammel, and W. F. Garey. Brainstem temperature affects gill ventilation in the California scorpionfish. Science 181: 579–581, 1973.
 104. Cunningham, D. J. C., Integrative aspects of the regulation of breathing: a personal view. In: Respiratory Physiology I, edited by J. G. Widdicombe. Baltimore, MD: University Park, 1974, vol. 2, p. 303–369. (Int. Rev. Physiol. Ser.).
 105. Dandy, J. W. Activity response to oxygen in the brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis (Mitchill). Can. J. Zool. 48: 1067–1072, 1970.
 106. Davies, D. G. Temperature‐induced changes in blood acid‐base status in the alligator, Alligator mississippiensis. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 45: 922–926, 1978.
 107. Davies, D. G., and M. T. Kopetzky. Effect of body temperature on the ventilatory response to hypercapnia in the awake alligator (Abstract). Federation Proc. 35: 840, 1976.
 108. Davies, D. G., J. L. Thomas, and E. N. Smith. Effect of body temperature on ventilatory control in the alligator. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 52: 114–118, 1982.
 109. Davis, J. C. The Influence of Temperature and Activity on Certain Cardiovascular and Respiratory Parameters in Adult Sockeye Salmon. Vancouver: Univ. of British Columbia, 1968. Dissertation.
 110. Davis, J. C. Circulatory and ventilatory responses of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to artificial manipulation of gill surface area. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 28: 1609–1614, 1971.
 111. Davis, J. C., and K. Watters. Evaluation of opercular catheterisation as a method of sampling expired water from fish. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 27: 1627–1635, 1970.
 112. Daxboeck, C., and G. F. Holeton. Oxygen receptors in the rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Can. J. Zool. 56: 1254–1259, 1978.
 113. Dejours, P. Comparison of gas transport by convection among animals. Respir. Physiol. 14: 96–104, 1972.
 114. Dejours, P., Problems of control of breathing in fishes. In: Comparative Physiology, edited by L. Bolis, K. Schmidt‐Nielsen, and S. H. P. Maddrell. Amsterdam: Elsevier/North‐Holland, 1973, p. 117–133.
 115. Dejours, P., Respiratory controls: oxygenation, CO2 clearance or acid base equilibrium? In: Claude Bernard and the Internal Environment. A Memorial Symposium, edited by E. D. Robin. New York: Dekker, 1979.
 116. Dejours, P. Principles of Comparative Respiratory Physiology (2nd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/North‐Holland, 1981.
 117. Dejours, P., W. F. Garey, and H. Rahn. Comparison of ventilatory and circulatory flow rates between animals in various physiological conditions. Respir. Physiol 9: 108–117, 1970.
 118. Dejours, P., Y. Labrousse, J. Raynaud, and A. Teillac. Stimulus oxygène chémoréflexe de la ventilation à lasse altitude (50 m) chez l'homme. I. Au repos. J. Physiol. Paris 49: 115–124, 1957.
 119. Dejours, P., A. Toulmond, and J. P. Truchot. The effect of hyperoxia on the breathing on marine fishes. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 58: 409–411, 1977.
 120. DeLaney, R. G., S. Lahiri, and A. P. Fishman. Aestivation of the African lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus: cardiovascular and pulmonary function. J. Exp. Biol. 61: 111–128, 1974.
 121. DeLaney, R. G., S. Lahiri, R. Hamilton, and A. P. Fishman. Acid‐base balance and plasma composition in the aestivating lungfish (Protopterus). Am. J. Physiol. 232 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 1): R10–R17, 1977.
 122. DeLaney, R. G., P. Laurent, R. Galante, A. I. Pack, and A. P. Fishman. Pulmonary mechanoreceptors in the dipnoi lungfish Protopterus and Lepidosiren. Am. J. Physiol. 244 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol 1): R418–R428, 1983.
 123. DeLaney, R. G., C. Shub, and A. P. Fishman. Hematologic observations on the aquatic and aestivating African lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus. Copeia 1976 (3): 423–434, 1976.
 124. d'eon, M. E., R. G. Boutilier, and D. P. Toews. Anaerobic contributions during progressive hypoxia in the toad Bufo marinus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol A 60: 7–10, 1978.
 125. Dill, D. B., and H. T. Edwards. Properties of reptilian blood. IV. The alligator (Alligator mississippiensis Daudin). J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 6: 243–254, 1935.
 126. Dill, D. B., H. T. Edwards, A. V. Bock, and J. H. Talbott. Properties of reptilian blood. III. The chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus Baird). J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 6: 37–42, 1935.
 127. Dively, J. L., J. E. Mudge, W. H. Neff, and A. Anthony. Blood Po2, Pco2, and pH changes in brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis) exposed to sublethal levels of acidity. Comp. Biochem. Physiol A 57: 347–351, 1977.
 128. Dmi'el, R. Effect of activity and temperature on metabolism and water loss in snakes. Am. J. Physiol. 223: 510–516, 1972.
 129. Dolk, H. E., and N. Postma. Über die Haut‐ und Lungenatmung von Rana temporaria. Z. Vgl. Physiol 5: 417–444, 1927.
 130. Donnelly, P., and A. J. Woolcock. Ventilation and gas exchange in the carpet python, Morelia spilotes variegata. J. Comp. Physiol. 122: 403–418, 1977.
 131. Driedzic, W. R., and P. W. Hochachka. Metabolism in fish during exercise. In: Fish Physiology, VII, edited by S. W. Hoar and D. J. Randall. London: Academic, 1978, p. 503–543.
 132. Driedzic, W. R., and J. W. Kiceniuk. Blood lactate levels in free‐swimming rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) before and after strenuous exercise resulting in fatigue. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 33: 173–176, 1976.
 133. Dunel‐Erb, S., Y. Bailly, and P. Laurent. Neuroepithelial cells in fish gill primary lamellae. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 1342–1353, 1982.
 134. Eclancher, B. Action des changements rapides de Po2 de l'eau sur la ventilation de la truite et de la tanche. J. Physiol. Paris 65: 397A, 1972.
 135. Eclancher, B. Contrôle de la respiration chez les poissons téléostéens: reactions respiratoires à des changements rectangulaires de l'oxygénation du milieu. C. R. Acad. Sci. Ser. D 280: 307–310, 1975.
 136. Eclancher, B., and P. Dejours. Contrôle de la respiration chez les poissons téléostéens: existence de chémorécepteurs physiologiquement analogues aux chémorécepteurs des vertébrés supérieurs. C. R. Acad. Sci. Ser. D 280: 451–453, 1975.
 137. Eddy, F. B. Blood gas relationships in the rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri. J. Exp. Biol 55: 695–711, 1971.
 138. Eddy, F. B. Oxygen dissociation curves of the blood of the tench Tinca tinca. J. Exp. Biol. 58: 281–293, 1973.
 139. Eddy, F. B. Blood gases of the tench (Tinca tinca) in well aerated and oxygen‐deficient waters. J. Exp. Biol. 60: 71–83, 1974.
 140. Eddy, F. B. Acid‐base balance in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) subjected to acid stresses. J. Exp. Biol. 64: 159–171, 1976.
 141. Eddy, F. B., and R. I. G. Morgan. Some effects of carbon dioxide on the blood of the rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson. J. Fish Biol. 1: 361–372, 1969.
 142. Edwards, R. R. C. An assessment of the energy cost of gill ventilation in the plaice (Pleuronectes platessa L.). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 40: 391–398, 1971.
 143. Emilio, M. G. Gas exchanges and blood gas concentrations in the frog Rana ridibunda. J. Exp. Biol 60: 901–908, 1974.
 144. Emilio, M. G., and G. Shelton. Factors affecting blood flow to the lungs in the amphibian Xenopus laevis. J. Exp. Biol. 56: 67–77, 1972.
 145. Emilio, M. G., and G. Shelton. Gas exchange and its effect on blood gas concentrations in the amphibian Xenopus laevis. J. Exp. Biol. 60: 567–579, 1974.
 146. Erasmus, B. de W., B. J. Howell, and H. Rahn. Ontogeny of acid‐base balance in the bullfrog and chicken. Respir. Physiol. 11: 46–53, 1970/71.
 147. von Euler, C., and T. Trippenbach. Temperature effects on the inflation reflex during expiratory time in the cat. Acta Physiol. Scand. 96: 338–350, 1976.
 148. von Euler, C., and T. Trippenbach. Excitability changes of the inspiratory “off‐switch” mechanism tested by electrical stimulation in nucleus parabrachialis in the cat. Acta Physiol. Scand. 97: 175–188, 1976.
 149. Farber, J., and H. Rahn. Gas exchange between air and water and the ventilation pattern in the electric eel. Respir. Physiol. 9: 151–161, 1970.
 150. Farrell, A. P., and D. J. Randall. Air‐breathing mechanics in two Amazonian teleosts, Arapaima gigas and Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus. Can. J. Zool. 56: 939–945, 1978.
 151. Fedde, M. R., W. D. Kuhlmann, and P. Scheid. Intrapulmonary receptors in the Tegu lizard. I. Sensitivity to CO2. Respir. Physiol 29: 35–48, 1977.
 152. Fedele, M. I nervi del tronco arterioso nel quadro della innervazione cardiaca nei Rettili e il problema del “depressore” nei Vertebrati. Atti R. Acad. Naz. Lincei. Mem. Cl. Sci. Fis. Mat. Nat. 66: 387–520, 1935.
 153. Frankel, H. M., A. Spitzer, J. Blaine, and E. P. Schoener. Respiratory response of turtles (Pseudemys scripta) to changes in arterial blood gas composition. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 31: 535–546, 1969.
 154. Freadman, M. A. Swimming energetics of striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix): gill ventilation and swimming metabolism. J. Exp. Biol. 83: 217–230, 1979.
 155. Freadman, M. A. Swimming energetics of striped bass (Morone saxatilis) and bluefish (Pomatomus saltatrix): hydrodynamic correlates of locomotion and gill ventilation. J. Exp. Biol. 90: 253–265, 1981.
 156. Freeman, J. A. Oxygen consumption, brain metabolism and respiratory movement of goldfish during temperature acclimization, with special reference to lowered temperatures. Biol Butt. 99: 416–424, 1950.
 157. Fromm, P. O. A review of some physiological and toxicological responses of freshwater fish to acid stress. Environ. Biol Fishes 5: 79–93, 1980.
 158. Fry, F. E. J., Responses of vertebrate poikilotherms to temperature. In: Thermobiology, edited by A. H. Rose. New York: Academic, 1967, p. 375–409.
 159. Fry, F. E. J., The effect of environmental factors on the physiology of fish. In: Fish Physiology VI, edited by W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall. London: Academic, 1971, p. 1–98.
 160. Fry, F. E. J., and J. Hart. The relation of temperature to oxygen consumption in the goldfish. Biol. Bull. 94: 66–77, 1948.
 161. Gans, C. Strategy and sequence in the evolution of the external gas exchangers of ectothermal vertebrates. Forma Functio 3: 61–104, 1970.
 162. Gans, C., Ventilatory mechanisms and problems in some amphibious aspiration breathers (Chelydra, Caiman—Reptilia). In: Respiration of Amphibious Vertebrates, edited by G. M. Hughes. New York: Academic, 1976, p. 357–374.
 163. Gans, C., and B. Clark. Studies on ventilation of Caiman crocodilus. Respir. Physiol. 26: 285–301, 1976.
 164. Gans, C., and B. Clark. Air flow in reptilian ventilation. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 60: 453–457, 1978.
 165. Gans, C., H. J. De Jongh, and J. Farber. Bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana) ventilation: how does the frog breathe? Science 163: 1223–1225, 1969.
 166. Gans, C., and G. M. Hughes. The mechanism of lung ventilation in the tortoise Testudo graeca. J. Exp. Biol. 47: 1–20, 1967.
 167. Garey, W. F., and H. Rahn. Gas tensions in tissues of trout and carp exposed to diurnal changes in oxygen tension of the water. J. Exp. Biol. 52: 575–582, 1970.
 168. Garey, W. F., and H. Rahn. Normal arterial gas tensions and pH and the breathing frequency of the electric eel. Respir. Physiol. 9: 141–150, 1970.
 169. Gatz, R. N. Diffusion‐limited gas exchange across amphibian skin. Federation Proc. 41: 2137–2139, 1982.
 170. Gatz, R. N., M. R. Fedde, and E. C. Crawford. Lizard lungs: CO2‐sensitive receptors in Tupinambis nigropunctatus. Experientia 31: 455–456, 1975.
 171. Gaunt, A. S., and C. Gans. Mechanics of respiration in the snapping turtle, Chelydra serpentina. J. Morphol. 128: 195–218, 1969.
 172. Gee, J. H. Buoyancy and aerial respiration: factors influencing the evolution of reduced swim‐bladder volume of some Central American catfishes (Trichomycteridae, Callichthyidae, Loricariidae, Astroblepidae). Can. J. Zool. 54: 1030–1037, 1976.
 173. Gee, J. H. Respiratory patterns and antipredator responses in the central mud minnow, Umbra limi, a continuous facultative, air breathing fish. Can. J. Zool. 58: 819–827, 1980.
 174. Gee, J. H. Coordination of respiratory and hydrostatic functions of the swimbladder in the central mudminnow Umbra limi J. Exp. Biol. 92: 37–52, 1981.
 175. Gee, J. H., and J. B. Graham. Respiratory and hydrostatic functions of the intestine of the catfishes Hoplosternum thoracatum and Brochis splendens (Callichthyidae). J. Exp. Biol. 74: 1–16, 1978.
 176. Gee, J. H., R. F. Tallman, and H. J. Smart. Reactions of some great plains fishes to progressive hypoxia. Can. J. Zool. 56: 1962–1966, 1978.
 177. Gerald, J. W., and J. J. Cech, Jr.. Respiratory responses of juvenile catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) to hypoxic conditions. Physiol. Zool. 43: 47–54, 1970.
 178. Giordano, R. V., and D. C. Jackson. The effect of temperature on ventilation in the green iguana (Iguana iguana). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 45: 235–238, 1973.
 179. Glass, M. L., R. G. Boutilier, and N. Heisler. Ventilatory control of arterial Po2 in the turtle Chrysemys picta bellii: effects of temperature and hypoxia. J. Comp. Physiol. 151: 145–153, 1983.
 180. Glass, M. L., W. W. Burggren, and K. Johansen. Ventilation in an aquatic and a terrestrial chelonian reptile. J. Exp. Biol. 72: 165–179, 1978.
 181. Glass, M. L., J. W. Hicks, and M. L. Reidesel. Respiratory responses to long‐term temperature exposure in the box turtle, Terrapene ornata. J. Comp. Physiol. 131: 353–359, 1979.
 182. Glass, M. L., and K. Johansen. Control of breathing in Acrochordus javanicus, an aquatic snake. Physiol. Zool. 49: 328–340, 1976.
 183. Glass, M. L., and K. Johansen. Periodic breathing in the crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus: consequences for the gas exchange ratio and control of breathing. J. Exp. Biol. 208: 319–326, 1979.
 184. Glass, M. L., and S. C. Wood. Gas exchange and control of breathing in reptiles. Physiol. Rev. 63: 232–260, 1983.
 185. Gleeson, T. T. Preferred body temperature, aerobic scope and activity capacity in the monitor lizard Varanus salvator. Physiol. Zool. 54: 423–429, 1981.
 186. Gleeson, T. T., and A. F. Bennett. Acid‐base imbalance in lizards during activity and recovery. J. Exp. Biol. 98: 439–453, 1982.
 187. Gottlieb, G., and D. C. Jackson. Importance of pulmonary ventilation in respiratory control in the bullfrog. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 608–613, 1976.
 188. Graham, J. B. Aquatic respiration in the sea snake Pelamis platurus. Respir. Physiol. 21: 1–7, 1974.
 189. Graham, J. B., Respiratory adaptations of marine air‐breathing fishes. In: Respiration of Amphibious Vertebrates, edited by G. M. Hughes. New York: Academic, 1976, p. 165–187.
 190. Graham, J. B. The transition to air breathing in fishes. II. Effects of hypoxia acclimation on the bimodal gas exchange of Ancistrus chagresi (Loricariidae). J. Exp. Biol. 102: 157–173, 1983.
 191. Graham, J. B., and T. A. Baird. The transition to air breathing in fishes. I. Environmental effects on the facultative air breathing of Ancistrus chagresi and Hypostomus plecostomus (Loricariidae). J. Exp. Biol. 96: 53–67, 1982.
 192. Graham, J. B., J. H. Gee, and F. S. Robison. Hydrostatic and gas exchange functions of the lung of the sea snake Pelamis platurus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 50: 477–482, 1975.
 193. Graham, J. B., D. L. Kramer, and E. Pineda. Respiration of the air‐breathing fish Piabucina festae. J. Comp. Physiol. 122: 295–310, 1977.
 194. Graham, J. B., D. L. Kramer, and E. Pineda. Comparative respiration of an air‐breathing and a non‐air‐breathing characoid fish and the evolution of aerial respiration in characins. Physiol. Zool. 51: 279–288, 1978.
 195. Gratz, R. K. Ventilation and gas exchange in the diamond back water snake, Natrix rhombifera. J. Comp. Physiol. 127: 299–305, 1978.
 196. Gratz, R. K. Ventilatory response of the diamond back water snake, Natrix rhombifera, to hypoxia, hypercapnia and increased oxygen demand. J. Comp. Physiol. 129: 105–110, 1979.
 197. Gratz, R. K., and H. Hutchison. Energetics for activity in the diamond back water snake Natrix rhombifera. Physiol. Zool. 50: 99–114, 1977.
 198. Guimond, R. W., and V. H. Hutchison. Pulmonary, branchial and cutaneous gas exchange in the mudpuppy Necturus maculosus maculosus (Rafinesque). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 42: 367–392, 1972.
 199. Guimond, R. W., and V. H. Hutchison. Aquatic respiration: an unusual strategy in the hellbender Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis (Daudin). Science 182: 1263–1265, 1973.
 200. Guimond, R. W., and V. H. Hutchison. Trimodal gas exchange in the large aquatic salamander Siren lacertina (Linnaeus). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 46: 249–268, 1973.
 201. Guimond, R. W., and V. H. Hutchison. Aerial and aquatic respiration in the congo eel Amphiuma means means. Respir. Physiol. 20: 147–159, 1974.
 202. Guimond, R. W., and V. H. Hutchison. Gas exchange of the giant salamanders of North America. In: Respiration of Amphibious Vertebrates, edited by G. M. Hughes. New York: Academic 1976, p. 313–338.
 203. Hall, F. G. The influence of varying oxygen tensions upon the rate of oxygen consumption in marine fish. Am. J. Physiol. 88: 212–218, 1929.
 204. Hall, F. G. The ability of the common mackerel and certain other marine fishes to remove disssolved oxygen from sea water. Am. J. Physiol. 93: 417–421, 1930.
 205. Hall, F. G. The respiration of puffer fish. Biol. Bull. 61: 457–467, 1931.
 206. Halliday, T. R., and H. P. A. Sweatman. To breathe or not to breathe; the newt's problem. Anim. Behav. 24: 551–561, 1976.
 207. Hargis, J. R. Ventilation and metabolic rate of young rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) exposed to sublethal environment pH. J. Exp. Zool. 196: 39–44, 1976.
 208. Haswell, M. S., and D. J. Randall. The pattern of carbon dioxide excretion in the rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri. J. Exp. Biol. 72: 17–24, 1978.
 209. Heath, A. G. Ventilatory responses of teleost fish to exercise and thermal stress. Am. Zool. 13: 491–503, 1973.
 210. Heath, A. G. Respiratory responses to hypoxia by Ambystoma tigrinum larvae, paedomorphs, and metamorphosed adults. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 55: 45–49, 1976.
 211. Heath, A. G., and G. M. Hughes. Cardiovascular and respiratory changes during heat stress in rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol 59: 323–338, 1973.
 212. Heath, A. G., and A. W. Pritchard. Effects of severe hypoxia on carbohydrate energy stores and metabolism in two species of freshwater fish. Physiol. Zool 38: 325–334, 1965.
 213. Heatwole, H., and R. Seymour. Pulmonary and cutaneous oxygen uptake in sea snakes and a file snake. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 51: 399–405, 1975.
 214. Heisler, N., Regulation of the acid‐base status in fishes. In: Environmental Physiology of Fishes, edited by M. A. Ali. New York: Plenum, 1980, p. 123–132.
 215. Heisler, N. Intracellular and extracellular acid‐base regulation in the tropical fresh‐water teleost fish Synbranchus marmoratus in response to the transition from water breathing to air breathing. J. Exp. Biol 99: 9–28, 1982.
 216. Heisler, N. Transepithelial ion transfer processes as mechanisms for fish acid‐base regulation in hypercapnia and lactacidosis. Can. J. Zool. 60: 1108–1122, 1982.
 217. Heisler, N., G. Forcht, G. R. Ultsch, and J. F. Anderson. Acid‐base regulation in response to environmental hypercapnia in two aquatic salamanders, Siren lacertina and Amphiuma means. Respir. Physiol. 49: 141–158, 1982.
 218. Heisler, N., and G. F. Holeton. Hydrogen and lactate ion elimination from muscle tissues after exhausting exercise in larger spotted dogfish (Scyliorhinus stellaris) (Abstract). Pfluegers Arch. 379, Suppl: R22, 1979.
 219. Heisler, N., P. Neumann, and G. F. Holeton. Mechanisms of acid‐base adjustment in dogfish (Scyliorhinus stellaris) subjected to long‐term temperature acclimation. J. Exp. Biol 85: 89–98, 1980.
 220. Heisler, N., H. Weitz, and A. M. Weitz. Extracellular and intracellular pH with changes of temperature in the dogfish Scyliorhinus stellaris. Respir. Physiol. 26: 249–263, 1976.
 221. Heisler, N., H. Weitz, A. M. Weitz, and P. Neumann. Comparison of the acid‐base regulation in hypercapnia between a marine elasmobranch fish (Scyliorhinus stellaris) and a facultative air breathing fish (Synbranchus marmoratus) (Abstract). Physiologist 21 (4): 52, 1978.
 222. Hemmingsen, E. A., and E. L. Douglas. Respiratory and circulatory responses in a hemoglobin‐free fish, Chaenocephalus aceratus, to changes in temperature and oxygen tension. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 43: 1031–1043, 1972.
 223. Hemingsen, E. A., E. L. Douglas, and G. C. Grigg. Oxygen consumption in an Antarctic hemoglobin‐free fish, Pagetopsis macropterus, and in three species of Notothenia. Comp. Biochem. Physiol 29: 467–470, 1969.
 224. Hillman, S. S., V. H. Shoemaker, R. Putnam, and P. C. Withers. Reassessment of aerobic metabolism in amphibians during activity. J. Comp. Physiol. 129: 309–313, 1979.
 225. Hillman, S. S., and P. C. Withers. Aerobic contributions to sustained activity metabolism in Xenopus laevis. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 69: 605–606, 1981.
 226. Hitzig, B. M., and D. C. Jackson. Central chemical control of ventilation in the unanesthetized turtle. Am. J. Physiol. 235 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 4): R257–R264, 1978.
 227. Hitzig, B. M., and E. E. Nattie. Acid‐base stress and central chemical control of ventilation in turtles. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 1365–1370, 1982.
 228. Höglund, L. B. The reactions of fish in concentration gradients. A comparative study based on fluvarium experiments with special reference to oxygen, acidity, carbon dioxide and sulphite waste liquor (SWL). Report Inst. Freshwater Res. Drottingholm 43: 1–147, 1961.
 229. Höglund, L. B., and J. Hardig. Reactions of young salmonids to sudden changes of pH, carbon dioxide tension and oxygen content. Report. Inst. Freshwater Res. Drottingholm 49: 76–119, 1969.
 230. Höglund, L. B., and A. Persson. Effects of locomotor restraint and of anaesthesia with urethane or MS 222 on the reactions of young salmon (Salmo salar L.) to environmental fluctuations of pH and carbon dioxide tension. Report. Inst. Freshwater Res. Drottingholm 51: 75–89, 1971.
 231. Holeton, G. F. Oxygen uptake and transport by the rainbow trout during exposure to carbon monoxide. J. Exp. Biol. 54: 239–254, 1971.
 232. Holeton, G. F. Respiratory and circulatory responses of rainbow trout larvae to carbon monoxide and to hypoxia. J. Exp. Biol. 55: 683–694, 1971.
 233. Holeton, G. F. Gas exchange in fish with and without hemoglobin. Respir. Physiol. 14: 142–150, 1972.
 234. Holeton, G. F. Constancy of arterial blood pH during CO‐induced hypoxia in the rainbow trout. Can. J. Zool. 55: 1010–1013, 1977.
 235. Holeton, G. F., Oxygen as an environmental factor of fishes. In: Environmental Physiology of Fishes, edited by M. A. Ali. New York: Plenum, 1980, p. 7–32.
 236. Holeton, G. F., and D. R. Jones. Water flow dynamics in the respiratory tract of the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Exp. Biol. 63: 537–549, 1975.
 237. Holeton, G. F., M. G. Pawson, and G. Shelton. Gill ventilation, gas exchange, and survival in the Atlantic mackeral (Scomber scombrus L.). Can. J. Zool 60: 1141–1147, 1982.
 238. Holeton, G. F., and D. J. Randall. The effect of hypoxia upon the partial pressure of gases in the blood and water afferent and efferent to the gills of rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol 46: 317–327, 1967.
 239. Homma, S. Velar motoneurons of lamprey larvae. J. Comp. Physiol. 104: 175–183, 1975.
 240. Horn, M. H., and C. D. Riggs. Effects of temperature and light on the rate of air breathing of the bowfin Amia calva. Copeia 1973 (4): 653–657, 1973.
 241. Howell, B. J. Acid‐base balance in transition from water breathing to air breathing. Federation Proc. 29: 1130–1134, 1970.
 242. Howell, B. J., F. W. Baumgardner, K. Bondi, and H. Rahn. Acid‐base balance in cold‐blooded vertebrates as a function of body temperature. Am. J. Physiol. 218: 600–606, 1970.
 243. Howell, B. J., and H. Rahn. Regulation of acid‐base balance in reptiles. In: Biology of the Reptilia, edited by C. Gans and W. R. Dawson. New York: Academic, 1976, vol. 5, p. 335–363.
 244. Hughes, G. M. The mechanism of gill ventilation in the dogfish and skate. J. Exp. Biol. 37: 11–27, 1960.
 245. Hughes, G. M. A comparative study of gill ventilation in marine teleosts. J. Exp. Biol. 37: 28–45, 1960.
 246. Hughes, G. M. Fish respiratory homeostasis. Symp. Soc. Exp. Biol. 18: 81–107, 1964.
 247. Hughes, G. M., Evolution between air and water. In: Development of the Lung, edited by A. V. S. de Rueck and R. Porter. London: Churchill, 1967, p. 64–80. (Ciba Found. Symp.).
 248. Hughes, G. M. Respiratory responses to hypoxia in fish. Am. Zool. 13: 475–489, 1973.
 249. Hughes, G. M. (editor)., Respiration of Amphibious Vertebrutes. London: Academic, 1975.
 250. Hughes, G. M. On the respiration of Torpedo marmorata. J. Exp. Biol. 73: 85–105, 1978.
 251. Hughes, G. M., Effects of low oxygen and pollution on the respiratory systems of fish. In: Stress and Fish, edited by A. D. Pickering. New York: Academic, 1981, p. 121–146.
 252. Hughes, G. M., and C. M. Ballintijn. The muscular basis of the respiratory pumps in the dogfish (Scyliorhinus canicula). J. Exp. Biol. 43: 363–383, 1965.
 253. Hughes, G. M., R. Gayner, M. Moore, and A. J. Woakes. Respiratory exchange and body size in the Aldabra giant tortoise. J. Exp. Biol. 55: 651–665, 1971.
 254. Hughes, G. M., and I. A. Johnston. Some responses of the electric ray (Torpedo marmorata) to low ambient oxygen tensions. J. Exp. Biol. 73: 107–117, 1978.
 255. Hughes, G. M., and J. L. Roberts. A study of the effect of temperature changes on the respiratory pumps of the rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol. 52: 177–192, 1970.
 256. Hughes, G. M., and R. L. Saunders. Responses of the respiratory pumps to hypoxia in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol. 53: 527–545, 1970.
 257. Hughes, G. M., and G. Shelton. Respiratory mechanisms and their nervous control in fish. Adv. Comp. Physiol. Biochem. 1: 275–364, 1962.
 258. Hughes, G. M., and B. N. Singh. Respiration in an air‐breathing fish, the climbing perch Anabas testudineus Bloch. I. Oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide release into air and water. J. Exp. Biol. 53: 265–280, 1970.
 259. Hughes, G. M., and B. N. Singh. Respiration in air‐breathing fish, the climbing perch Anabas testudineus. II. Respiratory patterns and the control of breathing. J. Exp. Biol. 53: 281–298, 1970.
 260. Hughes, G. M., and B. N. Singh. Gas exchange with air and water in an air‐breathing catfish, Saccobranchus (Heteropneustes) fossilis. J. Exp. Biol. 55: 667–682, 1971.
 261. Hughes, G. M., and S. I. Umezawa. Oxygen consumption and gill water flow in the dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula L. J. Exp. Biol. 49: 557–564, 1968.
 262. Hughes, G. M., and S. I. Umezawa. On respiration in the dragonet Callionymus lyra L. J. Exp. Biol. 49: 565–582, 1968.
 263. Hukuhara, T., and H. Okada. On the automaticity of the respiratory centers of the catfish and the crucian carp. Jpn. J. Physiol. 6: 313–320, 1956.
 264. Hulbert, A. J., and P. L. Else. Oxygen demand of organ systems. Proc. Physiol. Soc. NZ, 1983.
 265. Hunn, J. B. Chemical composition of rainbow trout urine following acute hypoxic stress. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 98: 20–22, 1969.
 266. Hutchison, V. H., and K. Miller. Aerobic and anaerobic contributions to sustained activity in Xenopus laevis. Respir. Physiol. 38: 93–103, 1979.
 267. Hutchison, V. H., W. G. Whitford, and M. Kohl. Relation of body size and surface area to gas exchange in anurans. Physiol. Zool. 41: 65–85, 1968.
 268. Ishii, K., K. Honda, and K. Ishii. The function of carotid labyrinth in the toad. Tohoku J. Exp. Med. 88: 103–116, 1966.
 269. Ishii, K., and K. Ishii. The chemoreceptors of amphibians. In: Morphology and Mechanisms of Chemoreceptors, edited by A. S. Paintal. New Delhi: Vallabhbhai Patel Chest Inst., 1976, p. 265–274.
 270. Ishii, K., and T. Kusakabe. The glomus cell of the carotid labyrinth of Xenopus laevis. Cell Tissue Res. 224: 459–463, 1982.
 271. Ishii, K., and T. Oosaki. Fine structure of the chemoreceptor cell in the amphibian carotid labyrinth. J. Anat. 104: 263–280, 1969.
 272. Itazawa, Y., and T. Takeda. Gas exchange in the carp gills in normoxic and hypoxic conditions. Respir. Physiol. 35: 263–269, 1978.
 273. Jackson, D. C. Metabolic depression and oxygen depletion in the diving turtle. J. Appl. Physiol. 24: 503–509, 1968.
 274. Jackson, D. C. Buoyancy and control in the freshwater turtle, Pseudemys scripta elegans. Science 166: 1649–1657, 1969.
 275. Jackson, D. C. The effect of temperature on ventilation in the turtle Pseudemys scripta elegans. Respir. Physiol. 12: 131–140, 1971.
 276. Jackson, D. C. Mechanical basis for lung volume variability in the turtle Pseudemys scripta elegans. Am. J. Physiol. 220: 754–758, 1971.
 277. Jackson, D. C. Ventilatory response to hypoxia in turtles at various temperatures. Respir. Physiol. 18: 178–187, 1973.
 278. Jackson, D. C., Respiratory control in air‐breathing ectotherms. In: Regulation of Ventilation and Gas Exchange, edited by D. G. Davies and C. D. Barnes. New York: Academic, 1978, p. 93–130.
 279. Jackson, D. C., J. Allen, and P. K. Strupp. The contribution of non‐pulmonary surfaces to CO2 loss in six species of turtles at 20°C. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 55: 243–246, 1976.
 280. Jackson, D. C., and B. A. Braun. Respiratory control in bullfrogs: cutaneous versus pulmonary responses to selective CO2 exposure. J. Comp. Physiol. 129: 339–342, 1979.
 281. Jackson, D. C., D. R. Kraus, and H. D. Prange. Ventilatory response to inspired CO2 in the sea turtle: effects of body size and temperature. Respir. Physiol. 38: 71–81, 1979.
 282. Jackson, D. C., S. E. Palmer, and W. L. Meadow. The effect of temperature and carbon dioxide breathing on ventilation and acid‐base status of turtles. Respir. Physiol. 20: 131–146, 1974.
 283. Jackson, D. C., and H. D. Prange. Ventilation and gas exchange during rest and exercise in adult green sea turtles. J. Comp. Physiol. 134: 315–319, 1979.
 284. Jackson, D. C., and K. Schmidt‐Nielsen. Heat production during diving in the fresh water turtle Pseudemys scripta. J. Cell. Physiol. 67: 225–232, 1966.
 285. Jackson, D. C., and H. Silverblatt. Respiration and acid‐base status of turtles following experimental dives. Am. J. Physiol. 226: 903–909, 1974.
 286. Jacobs, W. Die Lunge der Sceschildkröte Caretta caretta (L) als Schwebeorgan. Z. Vgl. Physiol. 27: 1–28, 1939.
 287. Jammes, Y., and C. Grimaud. Ventilation, pulmonary and cutaneous gas exchange in the awake lizard Lacerta viridis. Comp. Biochem Physiol. A 55: 279–285, 1976.
 288. Janssen, R. G., and D. J. Randall. The effects of changes in pH and Pco2 in blood and water on breathing in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri. Respir. Physiol. 25: 235–245, 1975.
 289. Jesse, M. J., C. Shub, and A. P. Fishman. Lung and gill ventilation of the African lung fish. Respir. Physiol. 3: 267–287, 1967.
 290. Johansen, K. Airbreathing in the teleost Synbranchus marmoratus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 18: 383–395, 1966.
 291. Johansen, K. Airbreathing fishes. Sci. Am. 219: 102–111, 1968.
 292. Johansen, K., Air breathing in fishes. In: Fish Physiology IV, edited by W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall. London: Academic, 1970, p. 361–411.
 293. Johansen, K. Comparative physiology: gas exchange and circulation in fishes. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 33: 569–612, 1971.
 294. Johansen, K., D. Hanson, and C. Lenfant. Respiration in a primitive air breather Amia calva. Respir. Physiol. 9: 162–174, 1970.
 295. Johansen, K., and C. Lenfant. Respiratory function in the South American lungfish. J. Exp. Biol. 46: 205–218, 1967.
 296. Johansen, K., and C. Lenfant. Respiration in the African lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus. II. Control of breathing. J. Exp. Biol. 49: 453–468, 1968.
 297. Johansen, K., C. Lenfant, and G. F. Grigg. Respiratory control in the lungfish Neoceratodus forsteri (Krefft). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 20: 835–854, 1967.
 298. Johansen, K., C. Lenfant, and D. Hanson. Phylogenetic development of pulmonary circulation. Federation Proc. 29: 1135–1140, 1970.
 299. Johansen, K., C. Lenfant, and D. Hanson. Gas exchange in the lamprey Entosphenus tridentatus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 44: 107–119, 1973.
 300. Johansen, K., C. Lenfant, K. Schmidt‐Nielsen, and J. A. Peterson. Gas exchange and control of breathing in the electric eel, Electrophorus electricus. Z. Vgl. Physiol. 61: 137–163, 1968.
 301. Johansen, K., J. P. Lomholt, and G. M. Maloiy. Importance of air and water breathing in relation to size of the African lungfish Protopterus amphibius. J. Exp. Biol. 65: 395–399, 1976.
 302. Johansen, K., G. M. O. Maloiy, and G. Lykkeboe. A fish in extreme alkalinity. Respir. Physiol. 24: 159–162, 1975.
 303. Johnston, I. A. A comparative study of glycolysis in red and white muscles of the trout (Salmo gairdneri) and mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio). J. Fish Biol. 11: 575–588, 1977.
 304. Jones, D. R. The effect of hypoxia and anaemia on the swimming performance of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol. 55: 541–551, 1971.
 305. Jones, D. R. Anaerobiosis and the oxygen debt in an anuran amphibian Rana esculenta (L.). J. Comp. Physiol. 77: 356–381, 1972.
 306. Jones, D. R. Anaerobic exercise in teleost fish. Can. J. Zool. 60: 1131–1134, 1982.
 307. Jones, D. R. Ontogeny and phylogeny of the oxygen response. Proc. Physiol. Soc. NZ 3: 79–81, 1983.
 308. Jones, D. R., and W. K. Milsom. Functional characteristics of slowly adapting pulmonary stretch receptors in the turtle (Chrysemys picta). J. Physiol. London 291; 37–49, 1979.
 309. Jones, D. R., and W. K. Milsom. Peripheral receptors affecting breathing and cardiovascular function in non‐mammalian vertebrates. J. Exp. Biol. 100: 59–91, 1982.
 310. Jones, D. R., and M. J. Purves. The effect of carotid body denervation upon the respiratory response to hypoxia and hypercapnia in the duck. J. Physiol. London 211: 295–309, 1970.
 311. Jones, D. R., and D. J. Randall. The respiratory and circulatory systems during exercise. In: Fish Physiology VII, edited by W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall. London: Academic, 1978, p. 425–501.
 312. Jones, D. R., and T. Schwarzfeld. The oxygen cost to the metabolism and efficiency of breathing in trout (Salmo gairdneri). Respir. Physiol. 21: 241–254, 1974.
 313. Jones, D. R., and G. Shelton. Factors influencing submergence and the heart rate in the frog. J. Exp. Biol. 41: 417–431, 1964.
 314. Jones, J. R. E. The reactions of fish to water of low oxygen concentration. J. Exp. Biol. 29: 403–415, 1952.
 315. de Jongh, H. J., and C. Gans. On the mechanism of respiration in the bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana: a reassessment. J. Morphol. 127: 259–290, 1969.
 316. Jordan, J. The influence of body weight on gas exchange in the air‐breathing fish Clarias batrachus. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 53: 305–310, 1976.
 317. Juch, P. J. W. Mechanoreceptive signals processed by mesencephalic trigeminal neurons in the carp. J. Comp. Physiol. 141: 157–162, 1981.
 318. Juch, P. J. W., and C. M. Ballintijn. Tegmental neurons controlling medullary respiratory center activity in the carp. Respir. Physiol. 51: 95–108, 1983.
 319. Just, J. J., R. N. Gratz, and E. C. Crawford. Changes in respiratory functions during metamorphosis of the bullfrog Rana catesbeiana. Respir. Physiol 17: 276–282, 1973.
 320. Kawasaki, R. Breathing rhythm‐generation in the adult lamprey Entosphenus japonicus. Jpn. J. Physiol. 29: 327–338, 1979.
 321. Kawasaki, R. Maintenance of respiratory rhythm‐generation by vascular perfusion with physiological saline in the isolated head of the carp. Jpn. J. Physiol. 30: 575–589, 1980.
 322. Kiceniuk, J. W., and D. R. Jones. The oxygen transport system in trout (Salmo gairdneri) during sustained exercise. J. Exp. Biol 69: 247–260, 1977.
 323. Kinney, J. L., D. T. Matsuura, and F. N. White. Cardiorespiratory effects of temperature in the turtle Pseudemys floridana. Respir. Physiol. 31: 309–325, 1977.
 324. Kobayashi, S. Comparative cytological studies of the carotid body. 1. Demonstration of monoamine storing cells by correlated chromaffin reaction and fluorescence histochemistry. Arch. Histol. Jpn. Niigata Jpn. 33: 319–339, 1971.
 325. Kobayashi, S. Comparative cytological studies of the carotid body. 2. Ultrastructure of the synapses on the chief cell. Arch. Histol. Jpn. Niigata Jpn. 33: 397–420, 1971.
 326. Kobayashi, S., Ultrastructure of the synapses on the chief cell of the carotid body: a comparative study. In: The Peripheral Arterial Chemoreceptors, edited by M. J. Purves. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1975, p. 25–40.
 327. Kramer, D. L. Ventilation of the respiratory gas bladder in Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus (Pisces, Characoidei, Erythrinidae). Can. J. Zool. 56: 931–938, 1978.
 328. Kramer, D. L. The evolutionary ecology of respiratory mode in fishes: an analysis based on the costs of breathing. Environ. Biol. Fishes 9: 145–158, 1983.
 329. Kramer, D. L., and M. McClure. Aerial respiration in the catfish, Corydoras aeneus (Callichthyidae). Can. J. Zool. 58: 1984–1991, 1980.
 330. Kramer, D. L., and J. P. Mehegan. Aquatic surface respiration, an adaptive response to hypoxia in the guppy, Poecilia reticulata (Pisces, Poeciliidae). Environ. Biol. Fishes 6: 299–313, 1981.
 331. Kraus, D. R., and D. C. Jackson. Temperature effects on ventilation and acid‐base balance of the green turtle. Am. J. Physiol. 239 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 8): R254–R258, 1980.
 332. Krogh, A. On the cutaneous and pulmonary respiration of the frog. Skand. Arch. Physiol. 15: 328–419, 1904.
 333. Kuhlmann, W. D., and M. R. Fedde. Intrapulmonary receptors in the bullfrog: sensitivity to CO2. J. Comp. Physiol. A 132: 69–75, 1979.
 334. Kylstra, J. A., C. V. Paganelli, and H. Rahn. Some implications of gas transfer in water‐breathing dogs. In: Development of the Lung, edited by A. V. S. de Reuck and R. Porter. London: Churchill, 1967, p. 34–58. (Ciba Found. Symp.).
 335. Lahiri, S., J. P. Szidon, and A. P. Fishman. Potential respiratory and circulatory adjustments to hypoxia in the African lungfish. Federation Proc. 29: 1141–1148, 1970.
 336. Laurent, P. La pseudobranchie de téléostéens: preuves électrophysiologique de ses fonctions chémoréceptrice et baroréceptrice. C. R. Acad. Sci. Ser. D 264: 1879–1882, 1967.
 337. Laurent, P. Action du pH et de la Po2 sur le potentiel de membrane des cellules de l'épithélium récepteur dans la pseudobranchie d'un poisson téléostéen. Rev. Can. Biol. 28: 149–155, 1969.
 338. Laurent, P., and J. D. Rouzeau. Action de la Po2 sur l'activité nerveuse afférente provenant de la pseudobranchie d'un téléostéen. J. Physiol Paris 61, Suppl. 1: 145, 1969.
 339. Laurent, P., and J. D. Rouzeau. Afferent neural activity from the pseudobranch of teleosts. Respir. Physiol. 14: 307–331, 1972.
 340. Leivestad, H., H. T. Andersen, and P. F. Scholander. Physiological response to air exposure in codfish. Science 126: 505, 1957.
 341. Leivestad, H., G. Hendry, I. Muniz, and E. Snevik. Effects of acid precipitation on fresh water organisms. In: Impact of Acid Precipitation on Forest and Fresh Water Ecosystems in Norway, edited by F. Braekke. Norway: 1976, p. 87–111. (Tech. Rep. 6/76, SNSF Project NISK, 1432 Aas‐NLN.).
 342. Lenfant, C., and K. Johansen. Respiratory function in the elasmobranch Squalus suckleyi G. Respir. Physiol. 1: 13–29, 1966.
 343. Lenfant, C., and K. Johansen. Respiratory adaptations in selected amphibians. Respir. Physiol. 2: 247–260, 1967.
 344. Lenfant, C., and K. Johansen. Respiration in an African lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus. Respiratory properties of blood and normal patterns of breathing and gas exchange. J. Exp. Biol. 49: 437–457, 1968.
 345. Lenfant, C., K. Johansen, and D. Hanson. Bimodal gas exchange and ventilation‐perfusion relationship in lower vertebrates. Federation Proc. 29: 1124–1129, 1970.
 346. Lenfant, C., K. Johansen, J. A. Peterson, and K. Schmidt‐Nielsen. Respiration in the fresh water turtle Chelys fimbriata. Respir. Physiol. 8: 261–275, 1970.
 347. Lillo, R. S. Localization of chemoreceptors which may cause diving bradycardia in bullfrogs. Can. J. Zool. 52: 931–936, 1980.
 348. Lloyd, R., and W. R. White. Effect of high concentrations of CO2 on the ionic composition of trout blood. Nature London 216: 1341–1342, 1967.
 349. Lomholt, J. P., and K. Johansen. Control of breathing in Amphipnous cuchia, an amphibious fish. Respir. Physiol. 21: 325–340, 1974.
 350. Lomholt, J. P., and K. Johansen. Gas exchange in the amphibious fish, Amphipnous cuchia. J. Comp. Physiol. 107: 141–157, 1976.
 351. Lomholt, J. P., and K. Johansen. Hypoxia acclimation in carp—how it affects O2 uptake, ventilation and O2 extraction from water. Physiol. Zool. 52: 38–49, 1979.
 352. Ludicke, M. Über die Atmung von Emys obicularis L. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Allg. Zool. Physiol. Tiere 56: 83–106, 1936.
 353. Ludicke, M. Die Blutmenge in der Lunge und in der Niere der Schlangen. Zool. Jahrb. Abt. Allg. Zool. Physiol. Tiere 59: 463–504, 1938.
 354. Luiten, P. G. M. The central projections of the trigeminal, facial and anterior lateral line nerves in the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Comp. Neurol. 160: 399–417, 1975.
 355. Luiten, P. G. M. A somatotopic and functional representation of the respiratory muscles in the trigeminal and facial motor nuclei of the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.). J. Comp. Neurol. 166: 191–200, 1976.
 356. Luiten, P. G. M. Proprioceptive reflex connections of head musculature and the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus in the carp. J. Comp. Neurol. 183: 903–912, 1979.
 357. Luiten, P. G. M., and J. N. C. van der Pers. The connections of the trigeminal and facial motor nuclei in the brain of the carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) as revealed by anterograde and retrograde transport of horseradish peroxidase. J. Comp. Neurol. 174: 575–590, 1977.
 358. Lumsden, T. Chelonian respiration (tortoise). J. Physiol. London 58: 259–266, 1924.
 359. Lykkeboe, G., and R. E. Weber. Changes in the respiratory properties of the blood in the carp, Cyprinus carpio, induced by diurnal variation in ambient oxygen tension. J. Comp. Physiol. 128: 117–125, 1978.
 360. MacIntyre, D. H., and D. P. Toews. The mechanics of lung ventilation and the effects of hypercapnia on respiration in Bufo marinus. Can. J. Zool. 54: 1364–1374, 1976.
 361. MacKenzie, J. A., and D. C. Jackson. The effect of temperature on cutaneous CO2 loss and conductance in the bullfrog. Respir. Physiol. 32: 313–323, 1978.
 362. Magid, A. M. A. Breathing and function of the spiracles in Polypterus senegalus. Anim. Behav. 14: 530–533, 1966.
 363. Magnuson, J. J. Tuna behaviour and physiology, a review. FAO Fish Rep. 3: 1057–1066, 1963.
 364. Margaria, R. Biomechanics and Energetics of Muscular Exercise. Oxford, UK: Clarendon, 1976.
 365. de Marneffe‐Foulon, C. Contribution a l'étude du mechanisme et du controle des mouvements respiratoires chez Rana. Ann. Soc. R. Zool. Belg. 92: 81–132, 1962.
 366. Marvin, D. E., and A. G. Heath. Cardiac and respiratory responses to gradual hypoxia in three ecologically distinct species of fresh‐water fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 27: 349–355, 1968.
 367. McKean, T. A linear approximation of the transfer function of pulmonary mechanoreceptors of the frog. J. Appl. Physiol. 27: 775–781, 1969.
 368. McMahon, B. R. A functional analysis of the aquatic and aerial respiratory movements of an African lungfish, Protopterus aethiopicus, with reference to the evolution of the lung‐ventilation mechanism in the vertebrates. J. Exp. Biol. 51: 407–430, 1969.
 369. Merrill, G. G. Where are the real respiratory neurons? Federation Proc. 40: 2389–2394, 1981.
 370. Meuwis, A. L., and J. M. Heuts. Temperature dependence of breathing rate of carp. Biol. Bull. 112: 97–107, 1957.
 371. Millard, R. W., and K. Johansen. Ventricular outflow dynamics in the lizard Varanus niloticus: responses to hypoxia, hypercarbia and diving. J. Exp. Biol. 60: 871–880, 1974.
 372. Milsom, W. K., and K. Johansen. The effect of buoyancy induced lung volume changes on respiratory frequency in a chelonian (Caretta caretta). J. Comp. Physiol. 98: 157–160, 1975.
 373. Milsom, W. K., and D. R. Jones. Are reptilian pulmonary receptors mechano‐ or chemosensitive? Nature London 261: 327–328, 1976.
 374. Milsom, W. K., and D. R. Jones. Carbon dioxide sensitivity of pulmonary receptors in the frog. Experientia 33: 1167–1168, 1977.
 375. Milsom, W. K., and D. R. Jones. The role of vagal afferent information and hypercapnia in control of the breathing pattern in chelonia. J. Exp. Biol. 87: 53–63, 1980.
 376. Milsom, W. K., and D. R. Jones. Characteristics of mechanoreceptors in the air breathing organ of the holostean fish, Amia calva (Abstract). Physiologist 26: A73, 1983.
 377. Milsom, W. K., D. R. Jones, and G. R. J. Gabbott. On chemoreceptor control of ventilatory responses to CO2 in un‐anesthetized ducks. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 50: 1121–1128, 1981.
 378. Milsom, W. K., and T. Z. Vitalis. Adaptive significance of arrhythmic breathing patterns in lizards (Abstract). Physiologist 25: 250, 1982.
 379. Milsom, W. K., and T. Z. Vitalis. Pulmonary mechanics and the work of breathing in the lizard Gekko gecko. J. Exp. Biol. In press.
 380. Moalli, R., R. S. Meyers, G. R. Ultsch, and D. C. Jackson. Acid‐base balance and temperature in a predominantly skin‐breathing salamander Cryptobranchus alleganiensis. Respir. Physiol. 43: 1–11, 1981.
 381. Moberly, W. R. The metabolic responses of the common iguana, Iguana iguana, to walking and diving. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 27: 21–37, 1968.
 382. Muir, B. S., and R. M. Buckley. Gill ventilation in Remora remora. Copeia 1967 (3): 581–586, 1967.
 383. Muratori, G. Histological observations on the cervico‐thoracic paraganglia of amniotes. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. Ther. 140: 217–226, 1962.
 384. Naifeh, K. H., S. E. Huggins, and H. E. Hoff. The nature of the ventilatory period in crocodilian respiration. Respir. Physiol. 10: 338–348, 1970.
 385. Naifeh, K. H., S. E. Huggins, and H. E. Hoff. The nature of the nonventilatory period in crocodilian respiration. Respir. Physiol. 11: 178–185, 1971.
 386. Naifeh, K. H., S. E. Huggins, and H. E. Hoff. Study of the control of crocodilian respiration by anesthetic dissection. Respir. Physiol. 12: 251–260, 1971.
 387. Naifeh, K. H., S. E. Huggins, and H. E. Hoff. Effects of brain stem section on respiratory patterns of crocodilian reptiles. Respir. Physiol. 13: 186–197, 1971.
 388. Naifeh, K. H., S. E. Huggins, H. E. Hoff, T. W. Hugg, and R. E. Norton. Respiratory patterns in crocodilian reptiles. Respir. Physiol. 9: 31–42, 1970.
 389. Neville, C. M. Sublethal effects of environmental acidification on rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 36: 84–87, 1979.
 390. Neville, C. M. Ventilatory response of rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri) to increased H+ ion concentration in blood and water. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 63: 373–376, 1979.
 391. Nicloux, M. Action de l'oxyde de carbone sur les poissons et capacité respiratoire du sang de ces animaux. C. R. Soc. Biol. 89: 1328, 1923.
 392. Nielsen, B. On the regulation of the respiration in reptiles. I. The effect of temperature and CO2 on the respiration of lizards (Lacerta). J. Exp. Biol. 38: 301–314, 1961.
 393. Nielsen, B. On the regulation of respiration in reptiles. II. The effect of hypoxia with and without moderate hypercapnia on the respiration and metabolism of lizards. J. Exp. Biol. 39: 107–117, 1962.
 394. Nikinmaa, M., and A. Soivio. Blood oxygen transport of hypoxic Salmo gairdneri. J. Exp. Zool. 219: 173–178, 1982.
 395. Nolan, W. F., and H. M. Frankel. Effects of temperature on ventilation and acid‐base status in the black racer snake Coluber constrictor. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 73: 57–61, 1982.
 396. Nolan, W. F., and H. M. Frankel. Ventilatory responses to CO2 at different body temperatures in the snake, Coluber constrictor. Experientia 38: 943–945, 1982.
 397. Ogden, E. Respiratory flow in Mustelus. Am. J. Physiol. 145: 134–139, 1945.
 398. Ott, M. E., N. Heisler, and G. R. Ultsch. A re‐evaluation of the relationship between temperature and the critical oxygen tension in freshwater fishes. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 67: 337–340, 1980.
 399. Pappenheimer, J. R., V. Fencl, S. R. Heisey, and D. Held. Role of cerebral fluids in control of respiration as studied in unanesthetized goats. Am. J. Physiol. 208: 436–450, 1965.
 400. Peyraud, C., and A. Serfaty. Le rythme respiratoire de la carpe (Cyprinus carpio L.) et ses relations avec le taux de l'oxygène dissous dans le biotope. Hydrobiologia 23: 165–178, 1964.
 401. Piiper, J. Respiratory gas exchange at lungs, gills and tissues: mechanisms and adjustments. J. Exp. Biol. 100: 5–22, 1982.
 402. Piiper, J., and D. Baumgarten. Blood lactate and acid‐base balance in the elasmobranch Scyliorhinus stellaris after exhausting activity. Pubbl. Stn. Zool. Napoli 37: 84–94, 1969.
 403. Piiper, J., D. Baumgarten, and M. Meyer. Effects of hypoxia upon respiration and circulation in the dogfish Scyliorhinus stellaris. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 36: 513–520, 1970.
 404. Piiper, J., R. N. Gatz, and E. C. Crawford, Jr., Gas transport characteristics in an exclusively skin‐breathing salamander, Desmognathus fuscus (Plethodontidae). In: Respiration of Amphibious Vertebrates, edited by G. M. Hughes. New York: Academic, 1976, p. 339–356.
 405. Piiper, J., M. Meyer, and F. Drees. Hydrogen ion balance in the elasmobranch Scyliorhinus stellaris after exhausting activity. Respir. Physiol. 16: 290–303, 1972.
 406. Piiper, J., M. Meyer, H. Worth, and H. Willmer. Respiration and circulation during swimming activity in the dogfish Scyliorhinus stellaris. Respir. Physiol. 30: 221–239, 1977.
 407. Pouch, F. H. Blood oxygen transport and delivery in reptiles. Am. Zool. 20: 173–185, 1980.
 408. Prange, H. D. Energetics of swimming of a sea turtle. J. Exp. Biol. 64: 1–12, 1976.
 409. Prange, H. D., and D. C. Jackson. Ventilation, gas exchange and metabolic scaling of a sea turtle. Respir. Physiol. 27: 369–377, 1976.
 410. Priban, I. P. An analysis of some short‐term patterns of breathing in man. J. Physiol. London 166: 425–434, 1963.
 411. Prosser, C. L., Oxygen: respiration and metabolism. In: Comparative Animal Physiology, edited by C. L. Prosser. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1973, p. 165–211.
 412. Prothero, J. W. Maximal oxygen consumption in various animals and plants. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 64: 463–466, 1979.
 413. Rahn, H. Aquatic gas exchange: theory. Respir. Physiol. 1: 1–12, 1966.
 414. Rahn, H., Gas transport from the environment to the cell. In: Development of the Lung, edited by A. V. S. de Reuck and R. Porter. London: Churchill, 1967, p. 3–23. (Ciba Found. Symp.).
 415. Rahn, H., and F. W. Baumgardner. Temperature and acid‐base regulation in fish. Respir. Physiol. 14: 171–181, 1972.
 416. Rahn, H., and B. J. Howell. Bimodal gas exchange. In: Respiration of Amphibious Vertebrates, edited by G. M. Hughes. New York: Academic, 1976, p. 271–285.
 417. Rahn, H., K. B. Rahn, B. J. Howell, C. Gans, and S. M. Tenney. Air breathing of the garfish (Lepisosteus osseus). Respir. Physiol. 11: 285–307, 1971.
 418. Rahn, H., R. B. Reeves, and B. J. Howell. Hydrogen ion regulation, temperature, and evolution. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 112: 165–172, 1975.
 419. Randall, D. J., Gas exchange in fish. In: Fish Physiology IV, edited by W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall. London: Academic, 1970, p. 253–291.
 420. Randall, D. J. The control of respiration and circulation in fish during exercise and hypoxia. J. Exp. Biol. 100: 275–288, 1982.
 421. Randall, D. J., W. W. Burggren, A. P. Farrell, and M. S. Haswell. The Evolution of Air Breathing in Vertebrates. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1981.
 422. Randall, D. J., and J. N. Cameron. Respiratory control of arterial pH as temperature changes in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri. Am. J. Physiol. 225: 997–1002, 1973.
 423. Randall, D. J., J. N. Cameron, C. Daxboeck, and N. Smatresk. Aspects of bimodal gas exchange in the bowfin Amia calva L. (Actinopterygii: Amiiformes). Respir. Physiol. 43: 339–348, 1981.
 424. Randall, D. J., A. P. Farrell, and M. S. Haswell. Carbon dioxide excretion in the jeju Hoplerythrinus unitaeniatus, a facultative air‐breathing teleost. Can. J. Zool. 56: 970–973, 1978.
 425. Randall, D. J., A. P. Farrell, and M. S. Haswell. Carbon dioxide excretion in the pirarucu (Arapaima gigas), an obligate air‐breathing fish. Can. J. Zool. 56: 977–982, 1978.
 426. Randall, D. J., N. Heisler, and F. Drees. Ventilatory response to hypercapnia in the larger spotted dogfish Scyliorhinus stellaris. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 590–594, 1976.
 427. Randall, D. J., G. F. Holeton, and E. D. Stevens. The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the gills of rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol. 46: 339–348, 1967.
 428. Randall, D. J., and D. R. Jones. The effect of deafferentation of the pseudobranch on the respiratory response to hypoxia and hyperoxia in the trout (Salmo gairdneri). Respir. Physiol. 17: 291–301, 1973.
 429. Randall, D. J., S. F. Perry, and T. A. Heming. Gas transfer and acid/base regulation in salmonids. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B 73: 93–103, 1982.
 430. Randall, D. J., and G. Shelton. The effects of changes in environmental gas concentrations on the breathing and heart rate of a teleost fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 9: 229–239, 1963.
 431. Randall, W. C., D. E. Stullken, and W. A. Hiestand. Respiration of reptiles as influenced by the composition of the inspired air. Copeia 1944 (1): 136–144, 1944.
 432. Reeves, R. B. An imidazole alphastat hypothesis for vertebrate acid‐base regulation: tissue carbon dioxide content and body temperature in bullfrogs. Respir. Physiol. 14: 219–236, 1972.
 433. Reeves, R. B. Temperature‐induced changes in blood acid‐base status: pH and Pco2 in a binary buffer. J. Appl. Physiol. 40: 752–761, 1976.
 434. Reeves, R. B. The interaction of body temperature and acid‐base balance in ectothermic vertebrates. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 39: 559–586, 1977.
 435. Reeves, R. B., and H. Rahn. Patterns in vertebrate acid‐base regulation. In: Evolution of Respiratory Processes: A Comparative Approach, edited by S. Wood and C. Lenfant. New York: Dekker, 1979, p. 225–252.
 436. Reynolds, W. W. Thermal equilibration rates in relation to heartbeat and ventilatory frequencies in largemouth blackbass, Micropterus salmoides. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 56: 195–201, 1977.
 437. Richter, D. W. Generation and maintenance of the respiratory rhythm. J. Exp. Biol. 100: 93–107, 1982.
 438. Richter, D. W., and F. Heyde. Accommodative reactions of medullary respiratory neurons of the cat. J. Neurophysiol 38: 1172–1180, 1975.
 439. Roberts, B. L. Activity of lateral‐line sense organs in swimming dogfish. J. Exp. Biol 56: 105–118, 1972.
 440. Roberts, J. L., Effects of thermal stress on gill ventilation and heart rate in fishes. In: Responses of Fishes to Environmental Changes, edited by W. Chovin and N. Egani. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1973, p. 64–86.
 441. Roberts, J. L. Active branchial and ram gill ventilation in fishes. Biol. Bull 148: 85–105, 1975.
 442. Roberts, J. L., Cardio‐ventilatory interactions during swimming and during thermal and hypoxic stress. In: Respiration of Marine Organisms, edited by J. J. Cech, Jr., D. W. Bridges, and D. B. Horton. South Portland, ME: Res. Inst. Gulf of Maine, 1975, p. 139–154.
 443. Robin, E. D. Relationship between temperature and plasma pH and carbon dioxide tension in the turtle. Nature London 195: 249–251, 1962.
 444. Robin, E. D., P. A. Bomberg, and C. E. Cross. Some aspects of the evolution of vertebrate acid‐base balance. Yale J. Biol Med. 41: 448–467, 1969.
 445. Rogers, D. C. The structure of the carotid bifurcation in the lizards Tiligua occipitalis and Trachysaurus rugosus. J. Morphol. 122: 115–130, 1967.
 446. Rogers, D. C., and C. J. Haller. Innervation and cytochemistry of neuroepithelial bodies in the ciliated epithelium of the toad lung (Bufo marinus). Cell Tissue Res. 195: 395–410, 1978.
 447. Romer, A. S. Skin breathing—primary or secondary? Respir. Physiol. 14: 183–192, 1972.
 448. Root, R. W. The respiratory function of the blood in marine fishes. Biol Bull 61: 427–456, 1931.
 449. Rosenberg, H. I. Functional anatomy of pulmonary ventilation in the garter snake, Thamnophis elegans. J. Morphol. 140: 171–184, 1973.
 450. Rovainen, C. M. Respiratory motoneurons in lampreys. J. Comp. Physiol. 94: 57–68, 1974.
 451. Rovainen, C. M., and M. H. Schieber. Ventilation of larval lampreys. J. Comp. Physiol. 104: 185–203, 1975.
 452. Sage, M. Respiratory responses of the teleost Poecilia reticulata to rising temperature. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 40: 851–853, 1971.
 453. Salmoiraghi, G. C., and B. D. Burns. Localization and patterns of discharge of respiratory neurones in brain‐stem of cat. J. Neurophysiol. 23: 2–13, 1960.
 454. Salmoiraghi, G. C., and B. D. Burns. Notes on mechanism of rhythmic respiration. J. Neurophysiol 23: 14–26, 1960.
 455. Saltin, B., and P.‐O. Åstrand. Maximal oxygen uptake in athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 23: 353–358, 1967.
 456. Satchell, G. H. Respiratory reflexes in the dogfish. J. Exp. Biol 36: 62–71, 1959.
 457. Satchell, G. H. The response of the dogfish to anoxia. J. Exp. Biol. 38: 531–543, 1961.
 458. Satchell, G. H. A neurological basis for the co‐ordination of swimming with respiration in fish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 27: 835–841, 1968.
 459. Satchell, G. H., and H. K. Way. Pharyngeal proprioceptors in the dogfish Squalus acanthias. J. Exp. Biol. 39: 243–250, 1962.
 460. Saunders, R. L. The irrigation of gills in fishes. I. Studies of the mechanism of branchial irrigation. Can. J. Zool 39: 637–653, 1961.
 461. Saunders, R. L. The irrigation of the gills in fishes. II. Efficiency of oxygen uptake in relation to respiratory flow activity and concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide. Can. J. Zool. 40: 817–862, 1962.
 462. Saunders, R. L., and A. M. Sutterlin. Cardiac and respiratory responses to hypoxia in the sea raven, Hemitripterus americanus, and an investigation of possible control mechanisms. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 28: 491–503, 1971.
 463. Scheid, P., W. D. Kuhlmann, and M. R. Fedde. Intrapulmonary receptors in the tegu lizard. II. Functional characteristics and localization. Respir. Physiol. 29: 49–62, 1977.
 464. Sears, T. A. The respiratory motoneuron and apneusis. Federation Proc. 36: 2412–2420, 1977.
 465. Shelton, G. The respiratory center in the tench (Tinca tinca L.). I. The effects of brain transection on respiration. J. Exp. Biol. 36: 191–202, 1959.
 466. Shelton, G. The respiratory centre in the tench (Tinca tinca). II. Respiratory neuronal activity in the medulla oblongata. J. Exp. Biol. 38: 79–92, 1961.
 467. Shelton, G. The effect of lung ventilation on blood flow to the lungs and body of the amphibian Xenopus laevis. Respir. Physiol. 9: 183–196, 1970.
 468. Shelton, G., The regulation of breathing. In: Fish Physiology IV, edited by W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall. London: Academic, 1970, p. 293–359.
 469. Shelton, G., Gas exchange, pulmonary blood supply, and the partially divided amphibian heart. In: Perspectives in Experimental Biology. I. Zoology, edited by P. S. Davies. Oxford, UK: Pergamon, 1976, p. 247–259.
 470. Shelton, G., and R. G. Boutilier. Apnoea in amphibians and reptiles. J. Exp. Biol. 100: 245–273, 1982.
 471. Singh, B. N., Balance between aquatic and aerial respiration. In: Respiration of Amphibious Vertebrates, edited by G. M. Hughes. London: Academic, 1976, p. 125–164.
 472. Singh, B. N., and G. M. Hughes. Respiration of an air‐breathing catfish Clarias batrachus (Linn.). J. Exp. Biol. 55: 421–434, 1971.
 473. Singh, B. N., and G. M. Hughes. Cardiac and respiratory responses in the climbing perch Anabas testudineus. J. Comp. Physiol. 84: 205–226, 1973.
 474. Smatresk, N. J., and J. N. Cameron. Respiration and acid‐base physiology of the spotted gar, a bimodal breather. I. Normal values and the response to severe hypoxia. J. Exp. Biol. 96: 263–280, 1982.
 475. Smatresk, N. J., and J. N. Cameron. Respiration and acid‐base physiology of the spotted gar, a bimodal breather. II. Responses to temperature change and hypercapnia. J. Exp. Biol. 96: 281–293, 1982.
 476. Smatresk, N. J., and J. N. Cameron. Respiration and acid‐base physiology of the spotted gar, a bimodal breather. III. Response to a transfer from fresh water to 50% sea water, and control of ventilation. J. Exp. Biol. 96: 295–306, 1982.
 477. Smit, H., J. M. Amelink‐Koutstaal, J. Vijvernerg, and J. C. von Vaupel‐Klein. Oxygen consumption and efficiency of swimming in goldfish. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 39: 1–28, 1971.
 478. Smith, F. M., and D. R. Jones. Localization of receptors causing hypoxic bradycardia in trout (Salmo gairdneri). Can. J. Zool. 56: 1260–1265, 1978.
 479. Smith, F. M., and D. R. Jones. The effect of changes in blood oxygen‐carrying capacity on ventilation volume in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol. 97: 325–334, 1982.
 480. Smith, H. W. Metabolism of the lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus. J. Biol. Chem. 88: 97–130, 1930.
 481. Smyth, D. H. The central and reflex control of respiration in the frog. J. Physiol. London 95: 305–327, 1939.
 482. Soivio, A., M. Nikinmaa, and K. Westman. The blood oxygen binding properties of hypoxic Salmo gairdneri J. Comp. Physiol 136: 83–87, 1980.
 483. Spigarelli, S. A., G. P. Romberg, W. Prepejchal, and M. M. Thommes. Body‐temperature characteristics of fish at a thermal discharge on Lake Michigan. In: Thermal Ecology, edited by J. W. Gibbons and R. R. Sharits. Springfield, VA: Atomic Energy Comm., 1974, p. 119–132.
 484. Spitzer, K. W., D. E. Marvin, Jr., and A. G. Heath. The effect of temperature on the respiratory and cardiac response of the bluegill sunfish to hypoxia. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 30: 83–90, 1969.
 485. Spurway, H., and J. B. S. Haldane. The comparative ethology of vertebrate breathing. I. Breathing in newts, with a general survey. Behaviour 6: 8–34, 1953.
 486. Standaert, T., and K. Johansen. Cutaneous gas exchange in snakes. J. Comp. Physiol. 89: 313–320, 1974.
 487. Steen, J. B., and A. Kruysse. The respiratory function of teleostean gills. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 12: 127–42, 1964.
 488. Stevens, E.D., and E. C. Black. The effect of intermittent exercise on carbohydrate metabolism in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 23: 471–485, 1966.
 489. Stevens, E. D., and G. F. Holeton. The partitioning of oxygen uptake from air and from water by erythrinids. Can. J. Zool. 56: 965–969, 1978.
 490. Stevens, E. D., and G. F. Holeton. The partitioning of oxygen uptake from air and from water by the large obligate air‐breathing teleost pirarucu (Arapaima gigas). Can. J. Zool. 56: 974–976, 1978.
 491. Stevens, E. D., and D. J. Randall. Changes in blood pressure, heart rate and breathing rate during moderate swimming activity in rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol. 46: 307–315, 1967.
 492. Stevens, E. D., and D. J. Randall. Changes in gas concentration in blood and water during moderate swimming activity in rainbow trout. J. Exp. Biol. 46: 329–337, 1967.
 493. Stinner, J. N. Ventilation, gas exchange and blood gases in the snake Pituophis melanoleucus. Respir. Physiol. 47: 279–298, 1982.
 494. Stockard, M. E., and R. E. Gatten, Jr.. Activity metabolism of painted turtles (Chrysemys picta). Copeia 1983 (1): 214–221, 1983.
 495. Sutterlin, A. M. Effects of exercise on cardiac and ventilation frequency in three species of freshwater teleosts. Physiol. Zool. 42: 36–52, 1969.
 496. Sutterlin, A. M., and R. L. Saunders. Proprioceptors in the gills of teleosts. Can. J. Zool. 47: 1209–1212, 1969.
 497. Taglietti, V., and C. Casella. Stretch receptors stimulation in frogs' lungs. Pfluegers Arch. Gesamte Physiol. Menschen Tiere 292: 297–308, 1966.
 498. Taglietti, V., and C. Casella. Deflation receptors in frog's lung. Pfluegers Arch. 304: 81–89, 1968.
 499. Taigen, T. L., S. B. Emerson, and F. H. Pough. Ecological correlates of anuran exercise physiology. Oecologia Berlin 52: 49–56, 1982.
 500. Taylor, W., A. H. Houston, and J. D. Morgan. Development of a computer model simulating some aspects of the cardiovascular‐respiratory dynamics of the salmonid fish. J. Exp. Biol. 49: 477–493, 1968.
 501. Templeton, J. R., and W. R. Dawson. Respiration in the lizard Crotaphytus collaris. Physiol. Zool. 36: 104–121, 1963.
 502. Tenney, S. M., and D. Bartlett, Jr., Some comparative aspects of the control of breathing. In: Lung Biology in Health and Disease. Regulation of Breathing, edited by T. F. Hornbein. New York: Dekker, 1981, vol. 17, pt. I, p. 67–101.
 503. Thomas, S., and G. M. Hughes. A study of the effects of hypoxia on acid‐base status of rainbow trout blood using an extracorporeal blood circulation. Respir. Physiol. 49: 371–382, 1982.
 504. Thomas, S., and G. M. Hughes. Effects of hypoxia on blood gas and acid‐base parameters of sea bass. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 53: 1336–1341, 1982.
 505. Thomas, S., and H. Le Ruz. A continuous study of rapid changes in blood acid‐base status of trout during variations of water Pco2. J. Comp. Physiol. 148: 123–130, 1982.
 506. Todd, E. S., and A. W. Ebeling. Aerial respiration in the long jaw mud‐sucker Gillichthys mirabilis (Teleostei: Gobiidae). Biol. Bull. 130: 265–288, 1966.
 507. Toews, D. P. Factors affecting the onset and termination of respiration in the salamander Amphiuma tridactylum. Can. J. Zool. 49: 1231–1237, 1971.
 508. Toews, D. P., and N. Heisler. The effects of hypercapnia on intracellular and extracellular acid‐base status in the toad Bufo marinus. J. Exp. Biol. 97: 79–86, 1982.
 509. Toews, D. P., and D. MacIntyre. Respiration and circulation in an apodan amphibian. Can. J. Zool. 56: 998–1004, 1978.
 510. Toews, D. P., G. Shelton, and D. J. Randall. Gas tensions in the lungs and major blood vessels of the urodele amphibian Amphiuma tridactylum. J. Exp. Biol. 55: 47–61, 1971.
 511. Truchot, J. P., A. Toulmond, and P. Dejours. Blood acid‐base balance as a function of water oxygenation: a study at two different ambient CO2 levels in the dogfish Scyliorhinus canicula. Respir. Physiol. 41: 13–28, 1980.
 512. Ultsch, G. R., Ecophysiological studies of some metabolic and respiratory adaptations of sirenid salamanders. In: Respiration of Amphibious Vertebrates, edited by G. M. Hughes. London: Academic, 1976, p. 287–312.
 513. Ultsch, G. R., H. Boschung, and M. Ross. Metabolism, critical oxygen tension and habitat selection in darters (Etheostoma). Ecology 59: 99–107, 1978.
 514. Ultsch, G. R., and D.C. Jackson. Long‐term submergence at 3°C of the turtle Chrysemys picta bellii, in normoxic and severely hypoxic water. I. Survival, gas exchange and acid‐base status. J. Exp. Biol. 96: 11–28, 1982.
 515. Ultsch, G. R., M. E. Ott, and N. Heisler. Standard metabolic rate, critical oxygen tension, and aerobic scope for spontaneous activity of trout (Salmo gairdneri) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) in acidified water. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 67: 329–335, 1980.
 516. Van Dam, L. On the utilization of Oxygen and Regulation of Breathing in some Aquatic Animals. Groningen, The Netherlands, Univ. of Groningen, 1938. PhD thesis.
 517. Von Holst, E. Vom Wesen der Ordnung in Zentralnerven‐system. Naturwissenschaften 40: 641–647, 1937.
 518. Waldron, I. Spatial organization of respiratory neurones in the medulla of tench and goldfish. J. Exp. Biol. 57: 449–459, 1972.
 519. Walsh, P. J., and T. W. Moon. The influence of temperature on extracellular and intracellular pH in the American eel Anguilla rostrata (Le Sueur). Respir. Physiol. 50: 129–140, 1982.
 520. Wardle, C. S. Non‐release of lactic acid from anaerobic swimming muscle of plaice Pleuronectes platessa L.: a stress reaction. J. Exp. Biol. 77: 141–155, 1978.
 521. Wassersug, R. J., R. D. Paul, and M. E. Feder. Cardiorespiratory synchrony in anuran larvae (Xenopus laevis, Pachymedusa dacnicolor, and Rana berlandieri). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 70: 329–334, 1981.
 522. Watters, K. W., and L. S. Smith. Respiratory dynamics of the starry flounder Platichthys stellatus in response to low oxygen and high temperature. Mar. Biol. 19: 133–148, 1973.
 523. Webb, P. W. The swimming energetics of trout. I. Thrust and power output at cruising speeds. J. Exp. Biol. 55: 489–520, 1971.
 524. Webb, P. W. The swimming energetics of trout. II. Oxygen consumption and swimming efficiency. J. Exp. Biol. 55: 521–540, 1971.
 525. Webb, P. W. Hydrodynamics and energetics of fish propulsion. Bull. Fish. Res. Board Can. 190: 1–159, 1975.
 526. Webb, P. W. Synchrony of locomotion and ventilation in Cynatogaster agregata. Can. J. Zool. 53: 904–907, 1975.
 527. West, N. H., and W. W. Burggren. Gill and lung ventilatory responses to steady‐state aquatic hypoxia and hyperoxia in the bullfrog tadpole. Respir. Physiol. 47: 165–176, 1982.
 528. West, N. H., and D. R. Jones. Breathing movements in the frog Rana pipiens. I. The mechanical events associated with lung and buccal ventilation. Can. J. Zool. 53: 332–344, 1975.
 529. West, N. H., and D. R. Jones. Breathing movements in the frog Rana pipiens. II. The power output and efficiency of breathing. Can. J. Zool. 53: 345–353, 1975.
 530. West, N. H., and D. R. Jones. The initiation of diving apnoea in the frog Rana pipiens. J. Exp. Biol. 64: 25–38, 1976.
 531. White, F. N., Circulation. In: Biology of the Reptilia, edited by C. Gans and W. R. Dawson. New York: Academic, 1976, vol. 5, p. 275–335.
 532. White, F. N. Comparative aspects of vertebrate cardiorespiratory physiology. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 40: 471–499, 1978.
 533. White, F. N., and G. Somero. Acid‐base regulation and phospholipid adaptations to temperature: time courses and physiological significance of modifying the milieu for protein function. Physiol. Rev. 62: 40–90, 1982.
 534. Whitford, W. G. The effects of temperature on respiration in the Amphibia. Am. Zool. 13: 505–512, 1973.
 535. Whitford, W. G., and V. H. Hutchison. Cutaneous and pulmonary gas exchange in the spotted salamander Ambystoma maculatum. Biol. Bull. 124: 344–354, 1963.
 536. Whitford, W. G., and V. H. Hutchison. Gas exchange in salamanders. Physiol. Zool. 38: 228–242, 1965.
 537. Whitmore, C. M., C. E. Warren, and P. Doudoroff. Avoidance reactions of salmonid and centrarchid fishes to low oxygen concentrations. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 89: 17–26, 1960.
 538. Wilkes, P. R. H., R. L. Walker, D. G. McDonald, and C. M. Wood. Respiratory, ventilatory, acid‐base and ionoregulatory physiology of the white sucker Catostomus commersoni: the influence of hyperoxia. J. Exp. Biol. 91: 239–254, 1981.
 539. Willmer, E. N. Some observations on respiration of certain tropical freshwater fishes. J. Exp. Biol. 11: 283–306, 1934.
 540. Wilson, K. J. The Relationships of Activity, Energy, Metabolism and Body Temperature in Four Species of Lizards. Clayton, Australia: Monash Univ., 1971. PhD dissertation.
 541. Winberg, G. G. Rate of metabolism and food requirements of fishes. Minsk, USSR: Belorussian State Univ., 1956. (F. R. B. Transl. Ser. No. 194.).
 542. Wittenberger, C. Alterations of the carbohydrate metabolism in trout, induced by effort and hypoxia. Rev. Roum. Biol. Ser. Zool. 13: 131–137, 1968.
 543. Woldring, S., and M. N. J. Dirken. Unit activity in the medulla oblongata of fishes. J. Exp. Biol. 88: 218–220, 1951.
 544. Wood, C. M., and E. B. Jackson. Blood acid‐base regulation during environmental hyperoxia in the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). Respir. Physiol. 42: 351–372, 1980.
 545. Wood, C. M., D. G. McDonald, and B. R. McMahon. The influence of experimental anaemia on blood acid‐base regulation in vivo and in vitro in the starry flounder (Platichthys stellatus) and the rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri). J. Exp. Biol. 96: 221–237, 1982.
 546. Wood, C. M., B. R. McMahon, and D. G. McDonald. An analysis of changes in blood pH following exhausting activity in the starry flounder Platichthys stellatus. J. Exp. Biol. 69: 173–186, 1977.
 547. Wood, C. M., B. R. McMahon, and D. G. McDonald. Respiratory gas exchange in the resting starry flounder Platichthys stellatus: a comparison with other teleosts. J. Exp. Biol. 78: 167–179, 1979.
 548. Wood, C. M., B. R. McMahon, and D. G. McDonald. Respiratory, ventilatory and cardiovascular responses to experimental anaemia in the starry flounder Platichthys stellatus. J. Exp. Biol. 82: 139–162, 1979.
 549. Wood, S. C. Adaptation of red blood cell function to hypoxia and temperature in ectothermic vertebrates. Am. Zool. 20: 163–172, 1980.
 550. Wood, S. C., M. L. Glass, and K. Johansen. Effect of body temperature on ventilation and acid‐base balance in the lizard Varanus exanthematicus. Am. Zool. 15: 809, 1975.
 551. Wood, S. C., M. L. Glass, and K. Johansen. Effects of temperature on respiratory and acid‐base balance in a monitor lizard. J. Comp. Physiol. 116: 287–296, 1977.
 552. Wood, S. C., K. Johansen, M. L. Glass, and R. W. Hoyt. Acid‐base regulation during heating and cooling in the lizard Varanus exanthematicus. J. Appl. Physiol.: Respirat. Environ. Exercise Physiol. 50: 779–783, 1981.
 553. Wood, S. C., K. Johansen, M. L. Glass, and G. M. O. Maloiy. Aerobic metabolism in the lizard Varanus exanthematicus: effects of activity, temperature and size. J. Comp. Physiol. 127: 331–336, 1978.
 554. Wood, S. C., and C. J. M. Lenfant. Respiration: mechanics, control and gas exchange. In: Biology of the Reptilia, edited by C. Gans and W. R. Dawson. New York: Academic, 1976, vol. 5, p. 225–274.
 555. Wright, W. G., and J. A. Raymond. Air breathing in a California sculpin. J. Exp. Zool. 203: 171–176, 1978.
 556. Wyman, R. J. Neural generation of the breathing rhythm. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 39: 417–448, 1977.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Control of Breathing in Ectothermic Vertebrates
 

How to Cite

Graham Shelton, David R. Jones, William K. Milsom. Control of Breathing in Ectothermic Vertebrates. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 11: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Control of Breathing: 857-909. First published in print 1986. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp030228