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Ventilation: Total, Alveolar, and Dead Space

N. R. Anthonisen, J. A. Fleetham

10.1002/cphy.cp030407

Source: Supplement 13: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Gas Exchange

Originally published: 1987

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Alveolar Ventilation and Alveolar Gas Composition
1.1 Alveolar and Dead‐Space Ventilation
1.2 Alveolar Gas Equation and Alveolar Gas Composition
1.3 Assessment of Alveolar Gas Composition
2 Dead Space
2.1 General Considerations: Gas Mixing in Airways
2.2 Measurement of Dead Space
2.3 Factors Affecting Dead Space
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Graphic representation of Equation 22. Relationship between alveolar and alveolar when inspired gas ( = 149 mmHg; = 0 mmHg) exchanges at a variety of respiratory exchange ratio (R) values. Isopleths, gas compositions applying to gas exchanged at indicated R value.

Adapted from Rahn and Fenn 112
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Dead‐space effects on alveolar gas composition. A: isopleth, gas compositions given R = 0.8 (R, gas‐exchange ratio) and inspired gas of composition I (room air). Alveolar point (A) is indicated. Expired gas from this alveolus or lung must lie on same R isopleth; its location (E) depends on ratio of dead space to tidal volume (VDS/VT). Length AE/length AI equals VDS/VT. B: lung with R = 0.8 in which all dead space is common to all alveoli and VDS/VT is constant among alveoli. I′, composition of inspired gas, which is mean of gas of composition I weighted by VT — and gas of composition A weighted by . R isopleths for inspired gas of composition I′ are shown.

Adapted from Ross and Farhi 120
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Variations of and with time. One complete respiratory cycle is shown, with phases indicated at top. “Ripples” on traces are due to pulsatile changes of capillary flow and volume.

From Hlastala 60
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Alveolar‐arterial CO2 differences in rebreathing dogs. Ordinate: ( — ) normalized for concentration. Abscissa: arterial pH. ○, Δ, •, Ranges of concentrations. In these experiments, exceeded substantially.

From Gurtner et al. 52
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Excretion of CO2 (ordinate) compared to predicted excretion of an inert gas of similar solubility (abscissa). More‐efficient CO2 excretion suggests that it differs from that of inert gases. PA, alveolar partial pressure; , mixed venous partial pressure.

From Robertson and Hlastala 115
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Nitrogen concentration in peripheral airways as function of airway generation (top abscissa) and linear distance (bottom abscissa) during a breath of 100% O2 at constant flow. Lines, N2 concentration at successive intervals of 0.4 s. During inspiration (lines 2–5), large N2 differences are present in airways, but position of front changes little with time. During expiration (lines 6–10), N2 differences disappear.

Adapted from Paiva 101
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Tracing of expired gas concentration (FE) from rapid analyzer as function of volume expired (VE,L) during single expiration after inspiration of mixture devoid of gas being analyzed. Alveolar plateau (line BC) has been extrapolated (line DE).

Adapted from Aitken and Clark‐Kennedy 1
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Single‐breath dead space (VD) in dog lungs as function of breath‐holding time (abscissa). In animals with a heartbeat, dead space falls more rapidly than in dead animals; this fall can be duplicated by manually oscillating the heart of dead animals.

Adapted from Engel et al. 31


Figure 1.

Graphic representation of Equation 22. Relationship between alveolar and alveolar when inspired gas ( = 149 mmHg; = 0 mmHg) exchanges at a variety of respiratory exchange ratio (R) values. Isopleths, gas compositions applying to gas exchanged at indicated R value.

Adapted from Rahn and Fenn 112


Figure 2.

Dead‐space effects on alveolar gas composition. A: isopleth, gas compositions given R = 0.8 (R, gas‐exchange ratio) and inspired gas of composition I (room air). Alveolar point (A) is indicated. Expired gas from this alveolus or lung must lie on same R isopleth; its location (E) depends on ratio of dead space to tidal volume (VDS/VT). Length AE/length AI equals VDS/VT. B: lung with R = 0.8 in which all dead space is common to all alveoli and VDS/VT is constant among alveoli. I′, composition of inspired gas, which is mean of gas of composition I weighted by VT — and gas of composition A weighted by . R isopleths for inspired gas of composition I′ are shown.

Adapted from Ross and Farhi 120


Figure 3.

Variations of and with time. One complete respiratory cycle is shown, with phases indicated at top. “Ripples” on traces are due to pulsatile changes of capillary flow and volume.

From Hlastala 60


Figure 4.

Alveolar‐arterial CO2 differences in rebreathing dogs. Ordinate: ( — ) normalized for concentration. Abscissa: arterial pH. ○, Δ, •, Ranges of concentrations. In these experiments, exceeded substantially.

From Gurtner et al. 52


Figure 5.

Excretion of CO2 (ordinate) compared to predicted excretion of an inert gas of similar solubility (abscissa). More‐efficient CO2 excretion suggests that it differs from that of inert gases. PA, alveolar partial pressure; , mixed venous partial pressure.

From Robertson and Hlastala 115


Figure 6.

Nitrogen concentration in peripheral airways as function of airway generation (top abscissa) and linear distance (bottom abscissa) during a breath of 100% O2 at constant flow. Lines, N2 concentration at successive intervals of 0.4 s. During inspiration (lines 2–5), large N2 differences are present in airways, but position of front changes little with time. During expiration (lines 6–10), N2 differences disappear.

Adapted from Paiva 101


Figure 7.

Tracing of expired gas concentration (FE) from rapid analyzer as function of volume expired (VE,L) during single expiration after inspiration of mixture devoid of gas being analyzed. Alveolar plateau (line BC) has been extrapolated (line DE).

Adapted from Aitken and Clark‐Kennedy 1


Figure 8.

Single‐breath dead space (VD) in dog lungs as function of breath‐holding time (abscissa). In animals with a heartbeat, dead space falls more rapidly than in dead animals; this fall can be duplicated by manually oscillating the heart of dead animals.

Adapted from Engel et al. 31
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Article Title: Ventilation: Total, Alveolar, and Dead Space
 

How to Cite

N. R. Anthonisen, J. A. Fleetham. Ventilation: Total, Alveolar, and Dead Space. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 13: Handbook of Physiology, The Respiratory System, Gas Exchange: 113-129. First published in print 1987. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp030407