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Behavioral Thermoregulation in the Cold

Evelyn Satinoff

10.1002/cphy.cp040121

Source: Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology

Originally published: 1996

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 The Concept of Thermoneutrality
1.1 The Thermoneutral Zone
1.2 The Thermal Comfort Zone
2 Forced Movements
3 What Affects the Thermal Comfort Zone?
3.1 The Concept of Setpoint
3.2 Hypoxia
3.3 Fever
3.4 Circadian Rhythms
4 Examples of Behavioral Thermoregulation
4.1 Constructing a Microenvironment
4.2 Social Aggregation
4.3 Postural Changes
4.4 Preening
4.5 Alterations in Food Intake
5 Parental Thermoregulation for Offspring
6 Summary
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Control diagram for behavioral thermoregulation. The learned response (e.g., pressing a bar to turn on a heat lamp) occurs when there is a discrepancy (an error signal) between the ideal body temperature (setpoint) and the actual body temperature. The error arises from a disturbance. The actual body temperature is monitored and the feedback loops maintain the response at a level appropriate to the existing discrepancy. The lower feedback path carries information about actual body temperature that is compared with the set temperature at the comparator. The upper pathways adjust the parameters of the response mechanisms in terms of response cost and response effectiveness and optimize the effectiveness of the system. Low effectiveness or high response cost might be expected to lower the slope of the function relating error to response.
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Positions of 1‐day‐old rat pups in a thermal gradient at 10 min intervals for 120 min.

From ref. 126
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Thermal gradient response of Rana pipiens larvae. Each point represents the number of animals found at a given temperature during a succession of 10 min intervals. Note preference for warmer temperatures as the season progressed. Almost identical results were found in Rana catesbeiana larvae. From ref. 95
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Top: Effects of gradient PO2 on selected temperature (Ts). Values are means ± SEM. Numbers in parentheses = number of animals observed in determining Ts at each PO2. The filled circle represents Ts at a PO2 of 127 torr after N2 exposure. *: mean Ts is significantly different from mean Ts at PO2 of 127 torr (P < 0.05). **: mean Ts is significantly different from all other values (p < 0.01). Bottom: Effects of temperature on paramecia survival at 3 ambient PO2s. From ref. 100
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Closed circles: Esophageal temperature measured every 6 h for 24 h while the subjects were resting, showing the circadian cyclicity of body temperature. Open circles: Set temperature estimated from behavioral results. Subjects were asked to choose the most pleasurable temperature in a glove through which water was circulating. These results imply that set and body temperatures vary in the same direction in normal male subjects over 24 h. From ref. 26
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Operant responding and telemetered body temperature (Tb) of a normal rat. The rat was in either a cold or a hot environment. A single bar press rotated a valve so that the “drive” air was shunted away from the chamber and “reinforcement air” entered the chamber for 15 ss. Four sessions are shown. Sessions conducted when the rat's Tb was high are shown at the top. Those conducted when the rat's Tb was low are at the bottom. For cold‐escape sessions, ambient temperature (Ta) is indicated by solid lines and Tb by solid squares. For heat‐escape sessions, Ta is shown as dashed lines and Tb as open squares. Note that Tb at the end of the 90 min test is within 0.5°C of Tb at the beginning, except for the condition of escaping heat when Tb was low (in the morning), where the rat allowed its Tb to rise to nighttime levels.

From ref. 146
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Burrows of prairie voles showing simple (a), average (b), and complex (c) systems.

From ref. 46
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Nest‐building of adult male rat during 5 periods of ambient‐temperature changes. Breaks in baseline indicate transition from one period to the next. Ordinate: size of nest in strips of nesting material. Six hundred strips were offered every day.

From ref. 80
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Abandoned emperor penguin chicks usually huddle together for warmth while awaiting the presumed return of a parent.

From ref. 90
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Examples of close (A) and loose (B) aggregation responses of muskrats exposed to 5°C in the laboratory. There was no consistency between conformation pattern and air temperature, although there was a greater tendency for horizontal rather than vertical displacement at warmer temperatures.

From ref. 11
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Left: Four views of the flow of pups (6–10‐day‐old siblings) through a huddle. The arrows show the movements of individual pups, both downward into the clump and upward away from it, as they periodically appear and disappear in the huddle. Right: Time spent exposed by individual pups on the surface of the huddle during successive 7.5 min intervals of 2 h observations. The graphs depict the cyclic pattern of appearance and disappearance of pups on the huddle surface. (Pups in panels a and c were littermates. Their patterns of movement can be compared by superimposing those panels.)

From ref. 3
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Group of piglets in cool (top) and warm (bottom) conditions.

From ref. 106
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Mean percentages of body temperatures greater than the daily mean temperatures that occur in the light (open bar) and the dark (solid bar) period of a 12:12 light/dark cycle in 20–60‐day‐old rats in 5‐day blocks. N = 13 or 14 up to day 40 and 6–10 at older ages.

From ref. 81
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Characteristic heating posture often displayed when whiptail lizards were placed in a thermal gradient on the sand floor directly under a heat lamp. The lizard flattened its body on the substrate, arching its tail off the ground with only the tip touching. The palms were elevated perpendicular to the ground, the wrists were on the ground, and the hind feet were raised off the ground. This posture never lasted more than 4 min and stopped when the lizard was near its mean body temperature. Body temperature always rose when the lizard was in this posture.

From ref. 19
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Effect of changes in orientation to the sun on the radiant heat load. The model cows have been illuminated by a lamp set at an angle of 30° to represent the sun. The area of the shadow cast indicates the area of the body receiving radiation. The greater the area of shadow, the greater the surface that is directly illuminated (except, of course, when the sun, or lamp, is directly overhead).

From ref. 75
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Diagrammatic sectional view of the nests of two hummingbird species showing the differences in the quantity and arrangement of nest material. (a) Nest of the mountain species Selasphorus platycercus. (b) nest of the lowland species Amazilis violiceps.

From ref. 63, adapted from ref. 155


Figure 1.

Control diagram for behavioral thermoregulation. The learned response (e.g., pressing a bar to turn on a heat lamp) occurs when there is a discrepancy (an error signal) between the ideal body temperature (setpoint) and the actual body temperature. The error arises from a disturbance. The actual body temperature is monitored and the feedback loops maintain the response at a level appropriate to the existing discrepancy. The lower feedback path carries information about actual body temperature that is compared with the set temperature at the comparator. The upper pathways adjust the parameters of the response mechanisms in terms of response cost and response effectiveness and optimize the effectiveness of the system. Low effectiveness or high response cost might be expected to lower the slope of the function relating error to response.



Figure 2.

Positions of 1‐day‐old rat pups in a thermal gradient at 10 min intervals for 120 min.

From ref. 126


Figure 3.

Thermal gradient response of Rana pipiens larvae. Each point represents the number of animals found at a given temperature during a succession of 10 min intervals. Note preference for warmer temperatures as the season progressed. Almost identical results were found in Rana catesbeiana larvae. From ref. 95



Figure 4.

Top: Effects of gradient PO2 on selected temperature (Ts). Values are means ± SEM. Numbers in parentheses = number of animals observed in determining Ts at each PO2. The filled circle represents Ts at a PO2 of 127 torr after N2 exposure. *: mean Ts is significantly different from mean Ts at PO2 of 127 torr (P < 0.05). **: mean Ts is significantly different from all other values (p < 0.01). Bottom: Effects of temperature on paramecia survival at 3 ambient PO2s. From ref. 100



Figure 5.

Closed circles: Esophageal temperature measured every 6 h for 24 h while the subjects were resting, showing the circadian cyclicity of body temperature. Open circles: Set temperature estimated from behavioral results. Subjects were asked to choose the most pleasurable temperature in a glove through which water was circulating. These results imply that set and body temperatures vary in the same direction in normal male subjects over 24 h. From ref. 26



Figure 6.

Operant responding and telemetered body temperature (Tb) of a normal rat. The rat was in either a cold or a hot environment. A single bar press rotated a valve so that the “drive” air was shunted away from the chamber and “reinforcement air” entered the chamber for 15 ss. Four sessions are shown. Sessions conducted when the rat's Tb was high are shown at the top. Those conducted when the rat's Tb was low are at the bottom. For cold‐escape sessions, ambient temperature (Ta) is indicated by solid lines and Tb by solid squares. For heat‐escape sessions, Ta is shown as dashed lines and Tb as open squares. Note that Tb at the end of the 90 min test is within 0.5°C of Tb at the beginning, except for the condition of escaping heat when Tb was low (in the morning), where the rat allowed its Tb to rise to nighttime levels.

From ref. 146


Figure 7.

Burrows of prairie voles showing simple (a), average (b), and complex (c) systems.

From ref. 46


Figure 8.

Nest‐building of adult male rat during 5 periods of ambient‐temperature changes. Breaks in baseline indicate transition from one period to the next. Ordinate: size of nest in strips of nesting material. Six hundred strips were offered every day.

From ref. 80


Figure 9.

Abandoned emperor penguin chicks usually huddle together for warmth while awaiting the presumed return of a parent.

From ref. 90


Figure 10.

Examples of close (A) and loose (B) aggregation responses of muskrats exposed to 5°C in the laboratory. There was no consistency between conformation pattern and air temperature, although there was a greater tendency for horizontal rather than vertical displacement at warmer temperatures.

From ref. 11


Figure 11.

Left: Four views of the flow of pups (6–10‐day‐old siblings) through a huddle. The arrows show the movements of individual pups, both downward into the clump and upward away from it, as they periodically appear and disappear in the huddle. Right: Time spent exposed by individual pups on the surface of the huddle during successive 7.5 min intervals of 2 h observations. The graphs depict the cyclic pattern of appearance and disappearance of pups on the huddle surface. (Pups in panels a and c were littermates. Their patterns of movement can be compared by superimposing those panels.)

From ref. 3


Figure 12.

Group of piglets in cool (top) and warm (bottom) conditions.

From ref. 106


Figure 13.

Mean percentages of body temperatures greater than the daily mean temperatures that occur in the light (open bar) and the dark (solid bar) period of a 12:12 light/dark cycle in 20–60‐day‐old rats in 5‐day blocks. N = 13 or 14 up to day 40 and 6–10 at older ages.

From ref. 81


Figure 14.

Characteristic heating posture often displayed when whiptail lizards were placed in a thermal gradient on the sand floor directly under a heat lamp. The lizard flattened its body on the substrate, arching its tail off the ground with only the tip touching. The palms were elevated perpendicular to the ground, the wrists were on the ground, and the hind feet were raised off the ground. This posture never lasted more than 4 min and stopped when the lizard was near its mean body temperature. Body temperature always rose when the lizard was in this posture.

From ref. 19


Figure 15.

Effect of changes in orientation to the sun on the radiant heat load. The model cows have been illuminated by a lamp set at an angle of 30° to represent the sun. The area of the shadow cast indicates the area of the body receiving radiation. The greater the area of shadow, the greater the surface that is directly illuminated (except, of course, when the sun, or lamp, is directly overhead).

From ref. 75


Figure 16.

Diagrammatic sectional view of the nests of two hummingbird species showing the differences in the quantity and arrangement of nest material. (a) Nest of the mountain species Selasphorus platycercus. (b) nest of the lowland species Amazilis violiceps.

From ref. 63, adapted from ref. 155
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Article Title: Behavioral Thermoregulation in the Cold
 

How to Cite

Evelyn Satinoff. Behavioral Thermoregulation in the Cold. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 14: Handbook of Physiology, Environmental Physiology: 481-505. First published in print 1996. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp040121