Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Pathophysiology of gastrointestinal circulation

Robert H. Gallavan, Dale A. Parks, Eugene D. Jacobson

10.1002/cphy.cp060147

Source: Supplement 16: Handbook of Physiology, The Gastrointestinal System, Motility and Circulation

Originally published: 1989

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Pathophysiology of Ischemic Injury
1.1 Nonocclusive Intestinal Ischemia
1.2 Occlusive Disease
2 Shock and Intestinal Circulation
3 Portal Hypertension
4 Inflammatory Bowel Disease
5 Ulcers
6 Other Diseases
6.1 Hypertension
6.2 Diabetes Mellitus
6.3 Arteriovenous Malformations
6.4 Dumping Syndrome and Secretory Disorders
6.5 Miscellaneous Disorders
References
 1. Abramson, D. I., and P. B. Dorbin. Blood Vessels and Lymphatics in Organ Systems. New York: Academic, 1984.
 2. Agress, C. M., H. F. Glassner, M. J. Binder, and J. Fields. Hemodynamic measurements in experimental coronary shock. J. Appl. Physiol. 10: 469–475, 1957.
 3. Ahren, C., and U. Haglund. Mucosal lesions in the small intestine of the cat during low flow. Acta Physiol. Scand. 88: 541–548, 1973.
 4. Alexander, N., and V. De Quattro. Regional and systemic hemodynamic patterns in rabbits with neurogenic hypertension. Circ. Res. 35: 636–645, 1974.
 5. Al‐Khalidi, U. A. S., and T. H. Chaglassian. The species distribution of xanthine oxidase. Biochem. J. 97: 318–321, 1965.
 6. Alonso, D. R., S. Scheidt, M. Post, and T. K. Killip. Pathophysiology of cardiogenic shock. Quantification of myocardial necrosis, clinical, pathologic and electrocardiographic correlations. Circulation 48: 588–596, 1973.
 7. Altura, B. M. Humoral, hormonal and myogenic mechanisms in microcirculatory regulation. In: Microcirculation, edited by G. Kaley and B. M. Altura. Baltimore, MD: University Park, 1977, vol. 2, p. 431–502.
 8. Angerwall, L., and J. Sove Sodenbergh. Microangiography in the digestive tract in subjects with diabetes of early onset and long duration. Diabetologia 2: 117–122, 1966.
 9. Arfors, K. E., G. Arturson, D. Bergqvist, and E. Svensjo. The effect of inhibition of prostoglandin synthesis on microvascular haemostasis and micromolecular leakage. Thromb. Res. 8: 393–402, 1976.
 10. Ascanio, G., F. Barrera, E. V. Lautsch, and M. J. Oppenheimer. Role of reflexes following myocardial necrobiosis. Am. J. Physiol. 209: 1081–1088, 1965.
 11. Athanasoulis, C. A., J. Wittenberg, and R. Bernstein. Vasodilatory drugs in the management of nonocclusive bowel ischemia. Gastroenterology 68: 146–150, 1975.
 12. Baba, S., and K. Mizutani. The intraluminal administration of perfluorochemicals to the ischemic gastrointestinal tract. Aust. NZ J. Surg. 51: 468–475, 1981.
 13. Babior, B. M., R. S. Kipnes, and J. T. Curnette. Biological defense mechanisms. The production of leukocytes of superoxide, a potential bactericidal agent. J. Clin. Invest. 52: 741–744, 1973.
 14. Bailey, R. W., G. B. Bulkley, K. I. Levy, J. H. Anderson, and G. D. Zuidema. Pathogenesis of nonocclusive mesenteric ischemia: studies in a porcine model induced by pericardial tamponade. Surg. Forum 33: 194–196, 1982.
 15. Baker, R., and D. Mendel. Some observations on ‘autoregulatory escape’ in cat intestine. J. Physiol. Lond. 190: 229–240, 1967.
 16. Barnard, C. The genesis of intestinal atresia. Surg. Forum 7: 393–396, 1956.
 17. Barton, R. W., D. A. Reynolds, and K. G. Swan. Mesenteric circulatory responses to hemorrhagic shock in the baboon. Ann. Surg. 175: 204–209, 1972.
 18. Baum, S., C. Athanasoulis, A. Waltman, J. Goldabini, R. Shapiro, A. Warshaw, and L. Ottinger. Angiodysplasia of the right colon: a cause of gastrointestinal bleeding. Am. J. Roentgenol. 129: 789–794, 1977.
 19. Baum, S., and H. A. Jordon. Angiography in vascular disorders of the gut. In: Bockus Gastroenterology (4th ed.), edited by J. E. Berk. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1984, vol. 3, p. 1937–1982.
 20. Beck, L., and A. S. Dantas. Vasomotor activity in hemorrhagic shock (Abstract). Federation Proc. 14: 318, 1955.
 21. Becker, E. L., and K. F. Austin. Anaphylaxis. In: Textbook of Immunopathology (2nd ed.), edited by P. A. Miescher and H. T. Mueller‐Eberhard. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1976, p. 117–135.
 22. Benoit, J. N., J. A. Barrowman, S. L. Harper, P. R. Kvietys, and D. N. Granger. Role of humoral factors in the intestinal hyperemia associated with chronic portal hypertension. Am. J. Physiol. 247 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 10): G486–G493, 1984.
 23. Biber, B., O. Lundgren, and J. Svanvik. Intramural blood flow and blood volume in the small intestine of the cat analyzed by an indicator‐dilution technique. Acta Physiol. Scand. 87: 391–403, 1973.
 24. Birgens, H. S., J. Henriksen, P. Matzen, and H. Poulsen. The shock liver. Acta Med. Scand. 204: 417–421, 1978.
 25. Blaisdell, F. W. The role of steroids in septic shock. Circ. Shock 8: 673–682, 1981.
 26. Blanchet, L., and D. Lebree. Changes in splanchnic blood flow in portal hypertensive rats. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 12: 327–330, 1982.
 27. Bohlen, H. G. Intestinal tissue Po2 and microvascular responses during glucose exposure. Am. J. Physiol. 238 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 7): H164–H171, 1980.
 28. Bohlen, H. G., and K. D. Hankins. Early arteriolar and capillary changes in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic rats and intraperitoneal hyperglycaemic rats. Diabetologia 22: 344–348, 1982.
 29. Bohlen, H. G., P. M. Hutchins, C. E. Rapela, and H. D. Green. Microvascular control in intestinal mucosa of normal and hemorrhaged rats. Am. J. Physiol. 229: 1159–1164, 1975.
 30. Boles, R. S., H. E. Riggs, and J. D. Griffiths. The role of the circulation in the production of peptic ulcer. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 6: 632–640, 1939.
 31. Boley, S. J., L. J. Brandt, and F. J. Veith. Ischemic disorders of the intestines. Curr. Probl. Surg. 15: 1–85, 1978.
 32. Boley, S. J., F. R. Feinstein, R. Sammartano, L. J. Brandt, and S. Sprayregen. New concepts in the management of emboli of the superior mesenteric artery. Surgery St. Louis 153: 561–569, 1981.
 33. Boley, S. J., S. Schwartz, and L. Lash. Reversible vascular occlusion of the colon. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 116: 53–60, 1963.
 34. Boley, S. J., and S. Sprayregen. Treatment of mesenteric embolization. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 152: 165–170, 1980.
 35. Bowen, J. C., D. K. Garg, P. Salvato, and E. D. Jacobson. Differential oxygen utilization in the stomach during vasopressin and tourniquet ischemia. J. Surg. Res. 25: 15–20, 1978.
 36. Bowen, J. C., W. Pawlik, W. F. Fang, and E. D. Jacobson. Pharmacologic effects of gastrointestinal hormones on intestinal oxygen consumption and blood flow. Surgery St. Louis 78: 515–519, 1975.
 37. Bredenberg, C. E., G. A. Taylor, and W. R. Webb. The effect of thrombocytopenia on the pulmonary and systemic hemodynamics of canine endotoxin shock. Surgery St. Louis 87: 59–68, 1980.
 38. Brobmann, G. F., H. B. Ulano, L. B. Hinshaw, and E. D. Jacobson. Mesenteric vascular responses to endotoxin in the monkey and dog. Am. J. Physiol. 219: 1464–1467, 1970.
 39. Brockman, S. K., and C. S. Thomas, Jr. The effect of Escherichia coli endotoxin on the circulation. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 125: 763–774, 1967.
 40. Brod, J. Haemodynamic basis of acute pressor reactions and hypertension. Br. Heart J. 25: 227–245, 1963.
 41. Bruggeman, T. M., J. G. Wood, and H. W. Davenport. Local control of blood flow in the dog's stomach: vasodilation caused by acid back‐diffusion following topical application of salicyclic acid. Gastroenterology 77: 736–744, 1979.
 42. Brungardt, J. M., D. G. Reynolds, and K. G. Swan. Route of endotoxin delivery: effects of canine mesenteric hemodynamics. Am. J. Physiol. 223: 565–568, 1972.
 43. Bulkley, G. B., P. R. Kvietys, M. A. Perry, and D. N. Granger. Effects of cardiac tamponade on colonic hemodynamics and oxygen uptake. Am. J. Physiol. 244 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 7): G604–G612, 1983.
 44. Bynum, T. E., R. H. Gallavan, Jr., and E. D. Jacobson. The pathophysiology of nonocclusive intestinal ischemia. In: Physiology of the Intestinal Circulation, edited by A. P. Shepherd and D. N. Granger. New York: Raven, 1984, p. 369–376.
 45. Bynum, T. E., and H. G. Hanley. Effect of digitalis on estimated splanchnic blood flow. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 19: 84–91, 1982.
 46. Bynum, T. E., H. Hanley, and J. S. Cole. Effect of digitalis glycosides on splanchnic blood flow in man (Abstract). Clin. Res. 21: 509, 1973.
 47. Bynum, T. E., and E. D. Jacobson. Shock, intestinal ischemia and digitalis. Circ. Shock 2: 235–237, 1975.
 48. Bynum, T. E., and E. D. Jacobson. Nonocclusive intestinal ischemia. Arch. Int. Med. 139: 281–282, 1979.
 49. Cannon, W. B. Traumatic Shock. New York: Appleton, 1923.
 50. Casley‐Smith, J. R., and B. J. Gannon. Intestinal microcirculation: spatial organization and fine structure. In: Physiology of the Intestinal Circulation, edited by A. P. Shepherd and D. N. Granger. New York: Raven, 1984, p. 9–32.
 51. Castenfors, H., H. Elliasch, and E. Hultman. Effects of ingestion of hyperosmotic glucose solution on the splanchnic circulation in normal subjects and in partially gastrectomized patients reacting with circulatory collapse. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 13: 512–524, 1961.
 52. Cave, D. R., and J. B. Keisner. Animal models of inflammatory bowel disease. Z. Gastroenterol. 17, Suppl.: 125–135, 1979.
 53. Cheung, L. Y., and N. Chang. The role of gastric mucosal blood flow and H+ back‐diffusion in the pathogenesis of acute gastric erosions. J. Surg. Res. 22: 357–361, 1977.
 54. Cheung, L. Y., F. G. Moody, and R. S. Reese. Effect of aspirin, bile salt, and ethanol on canine gastric mucosal blood flow. Surgery St. Louis 77: 786–792, 1975.
 55. Cheung, L. Y., R. S. Reese, and F. G. Moody. Direct effect of endotoxin on the gastric mucosal microcirculation and electrical gradient. Surgery St. Louis 79: 564–568, 1976.
 56. Chien, S. Role of the sympathetic nervous system in hemorrhage. Physiol. Rev. 47: 214–288, 1967.
 57. Chien, S., and M. I. Gregerson. Hemorrhage and shock. In: Medical Physiology (12th ed.), edited by V. B. Mountcastle. St. Louis, MO: Mosby, 1968, p. 262–282.
 58. Chou, C. C., T. D. Burns, C. P. Hsieh and J. M. Dabney. Mechanisms of local vasodilation with hypertonic glucose in the jejunum. Surgery St. Louis 71: 380–387, 1972.
 59. Chou, C. C., L. C. Yu, and Y. M. Yu. Effects of acute hemorrhage and carotid artery occlusion on blood flow and its distribution in the wall of the gastrointestinal tract. In: Microcirculation, edited by J. Grayson and W. Zinng. New York: Plenum, 1976, vol. 1, p. 343–345.
 60. Clowes, J. G., N. Vucinie, and N. Weidner. Circulatory and metabolic alterations associated with survival or death in peritonitis. Ann. Surg. 163: 866–885, 1966.
 61. Cohn, J. D., M. Greenspan, C. R. Goldstein, A. L. Gudwin, J. H. Siegel, and L. R. M. Del Guercio. Arteriovenous shunting in high cardiac output shock syndromes. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 127: 282–288, 1968.
 62. Coleman, T. G., H. J. Granger, and A. C. Guyton. Wholebody circulatory autoregulation and hypertension. Circ. Res. 29, Suppl. 2: 78–86, 1971.
 63. Collis, M. G., and B. J. Alps. Vascular reactivity to noradrenaline, potassium chloride and angiotensin II in the rat perfused mesenteric vasculature preparation, during the development of renal hypertension. Cardiovasc. Res. 9: 118–126, 1975.
 64. Constanter, L. Extracardiac factors contributing to hypotension during coronary occlusion. Am. J. Cardiol. 11: 205–217, 1963.
 65. Corazza, R., L. Manfredia, and F. Raschi. Attività elettrica delle fibre nervose simpatiche vasomotrici nell'emorragic prot‐trata fino alla morte, nel getto. Minerva Med. 54: 1691–1694, 1963.
 66. Corazza, R., O. Pinotti, and F. Raschi. Attività simpatica vasomotoria nello shock emorragico. Arch. Sci. Biol. 47: 275–286, 1963.
 67. Culbertson, J. W., R. W. Wilkins, F. J. Ingelfinger, and S. E. Bradley. The effect of the upright posture upon hepatic blood flow in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J. Clin. Invest. 30: 305–311, 1951.
 68. Dalsing, M. C., J. L. Grosfeld, M. A. Shiffler, D. W. Vane, M. Hull, R. L. Baehner, and T. R. Weber. Superoxide dismutase: a cellular protective enzyme in bowel ischemia. J. Surg. Res. 34: 589–596, 1983.
 69. Danford, R. O. The splanchnic vasoconstrictive effect of digoxin and its reversal by glucagon. In: Vascular Disorders of the Intestine, edited by S. J. Boley, S. S. Schwartz, and L. F. Williams, Jr. New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1971, p. 421–435.
 70. Davenport, H. W., and L. L. Barr. Failure of ischemia to break the dog's gastric mucosal barrier. Gastroenterology 65: 619–624, 1973.
 71. Davis, L. J., J. Anderson, S. Wallace, C. Gianturco, and E. D. Jacobson. The use of prostaglandin E1 to enhance the angiographic visualization of the splanchnic circulation. Radiology 114: 281–286, 1974.
 72. Dean, H. R., and R. A. Webb. The morbid anatomy and histology of anaphylaxis in the dog. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 27: 51–64, 1924.
 73. Dean, H. R., and R. A. Webb. The blood changes in anaphylactic shock in the dog. J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 27: 65–78, 1924.
 74. Del Maestro, R. F., J. Björk, and K. E. Arfors. Increase in microvascular permeability induced by enzymatically generated free radicals. II. Role of superoxide anion radical, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical. Microvasc. Res. 22: 255–270, 1981.
 75. Demetriou, A. A., P. K. Kagoma, S. Kaiser, E. Seifler, X. T. Niu, and S. M. Levenson. Effect of dimethyl sulfoxide and glycerol on acute bowel ischemia in the rat. Am. J. Surg. 149: 91–94, 1985.
 76. Dietzman, R. H., L. H. Romero, C. B. Bickman, C. H. Shatney, and R. C. Lillehei. The influence of the sympathetic nervous system during cardiogenic shock. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 137: 773–783, 1973.
 77. Earlham, R. J. A study of the etiology of congenital stenosis of the gut. Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl. 51: 126–130, 1972.
 78. Earlham, R. J. A vascular cause for aganglionic bowel. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 17: 255–261, 1972.
 79. Earlham, R. J., J. F. Schlegel, and F. H. Ellis. Effect of ischemia of lower esophagus and esophogastric junction on canine esophageal motor function. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 54: 822–831, 1967.
 80. Errington, M. L., and M. R. Silva. On the role of vasopressin and angiotensin in the development of irreversible haemorrhagic shock. J. Physiol. Lond. 242: 119–141, 1974.
 81. Evangelista, S., and A. Meli. Influence of antioxidants and radical scavengers on ethanol‐induced gastric ulcers in the rat. Gen. Pharmacol. 16: 285–286, 1985.
 82. Fairburn, R. A. On the aetiology of ulcerative colitis: a vascular hypothesis. Lancet 1: 697–699, 1973.
 83. Falk, A., B. Kaijser, H. E. Myrvold, and U. Haglund. Intestinal vascular and central hemodynamic responses in the cat following i.v. infusion of live E. coli bacteria. Circ. Shock 7: 239–250, 1980.
 84. Falluca, F., N. Ziparo, L. Giangrande, G. Menzinger, and S. Stepa. Exaggerated glucagon secretion in diabetic and non‐diabetic subjects with surgical portacaval anastomosis. Horm. Metab. Res. 13: 545–547, 1981.
 85. Fang, W. F., A. G. Broughton, and E. D. Jacobson. Indomethacin induced intestinal inflammation. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 22: 749–760, 1977.
 86. Fantone, J. C., and P. A. Ward. Oxygen‐derived radicals and their metabolites: relationship to tissue injury. In: Current Concepts. Kalamazoo, MI: Upjohn, 1985, p. 1–51. (Upjohn Publ. No. 8800–67.)
 87. Fantozzi, R., S. Brunelleschi, L. Giuliattini, P. Blandina, E. Masisi, G. Cavallo, and P. F. Mannaioni. Mast cell and neutrophil interactions: a role for superoxide anion and histamine. Agents Actions 16: 260–264, 1985.
 88. Fataar, S., P. Morton, and A. Schulman. Arteriovenous malformation of the gastrointestinal tract. Clin. Radiol. 32: 623–630, 1981.
 89. Fedina, L., M. Kallai, and A. G. B. Kovach. Sympathetic nervous activity after hemorrhage. Adv. Exp. Biol. Med. 33: 473–480, 1973.
 90. Felder, R. F., and M. D. Thames. Interaction between cardiac receptors and sinoaortic baroreceptors in the control of efferent cardiac sympathetic nerve activity during myocardial ischemia in dogs. Circ. Res. 45: 728–736, 1979.
 91. Feola, M., E. R. Arbel, and G. Glick. Attenuation of cardiac sympathetic drive in experimental myocardial ischemia in dogs. Am. Heart J. 93: 82–88, 1977.
 92. Ferrario, C. M. Contribution of cardiac output and peripheral resistance to experimental renal hypertension. Am. J. Physiol. 226: 711–714, 1974.
 93. Fielding, L. P. Gastrointestinal Mucosal Blood Flow. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1980.
 94. Flohr, H., W. Bruell, H. W. Dahners, D. Redel, H. Conradi, and K. Stoepel. Regional distribution of vascular resistance in two models of experimental renovascular hypertension. Pfluegers Arch. 362: 157–164, 1976.
 95. Floyd, N. F., and E. Neil. The influence of the sympathetic innervation of the carotid bifurcation on chemoceptor and barocepter activity in the cat. Arch. Int. Pharmacodyn. 91: 230–239, 1952.
 96. Folkow, B., D. H. Lewis, O. Lundgren, S. Mellander, and I. Wallentin. The effect of graded vasoconstrictor fibre stimulation on the intestinal resistance and capacitance vessels. Acta Physiol. Scand. 61: 445–457, 1964.
 97. Folkow, B., and E. Neil. Circulation. London: Oxford Univ. Press, 1971.
 98. Fondacaro, J. D., M. Schwaiger, and E. D. Jacobson. Effects of vasodilators on mesenteric ischemia and hypoxia induced by hemorrhage. Circ. Shock 6: 255–260, 1979.
 99. Forsythe, R. P. Sympathetic nervous system control of distribution of cardiac output in unanesthetized monkeys. Federation Proc. 31: 1240–1244, 1972.
 100. Forsythe, R. P., B. I. Hoffbrand, and K. Melmon. Redistribution of cardiac output during hemorrhage in the unanesthetized monkey. Circ. Res. 27: 311–320, 1970.
 101. Freis, E. D., H. W. Schnaper, R. L. Johnson, and G. E. Schreiner. Hemodynamic alterations in acute myocardial infarction. I. Cardiac output, mean arterial pressure, total peripheral resistance, “central” and total blood volumes, venous pressure and average circulation time. J. Clin. Invest. 31: 131–140, 1952.
 102. Fukuzawa, K., S. Takase, and H. Tsukatani. The effect of concentration on the antioxidant effectiveness of tocopherol in lipid peroxidation induced by superoxide free radicals. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 240: 117–120, 1985.
 103. Gagor, S. Digestive system: liver, pathophysiology, pathogenesis and pathology of blood circulation. In: Blood Vessels and Lymphatics in Organ Systems, edited by D. I. Abramson and P. B. Dorbin. New York: Academic, 1984, p. 489–496.
 104. Gauer, O. H., and J. P. Henry. Circulatory basis of fluid volume control. Physiol. Rev. 43: 423–481, 1963.
 105. Geboes, K., V. Desmet, G. Vantrappen, and J. Mebis. Vascular changes in the esophageal mucosa. Gastrointest. Endosc. 26: 29–32, 1980.
 106. Gernandt, B., G. Liljestrand, and Y. Zotterman. Efferent impulses in the splanchnic nerve. Acta Physiol. Scand. 11: 231–247, 1946.
 107. Gilbert, R. P. Mechanisms of the hemodynamic effects of endotoxin. Physiol. Rev. 40: 245–279, 1960.
 108. Goldstein, I. M., D. Roos, G. Weissmann, and H. B. Kaplan. Influence of corticosteroids on human polymorphonuclear leukocyte function in vitro. Inflammation 1: 305–315, 1976.
 109. Gootman, P. M., and M. I. Cohen. Efferent splanchnic activity and systemic arterial pressure. Am. J. Physiol. 219: 897–903, 1970.
 110. Granger, D. N., and J. A. Barrowman. Microcirculation of the alimentary tract. II. Pathophysiology of edema. Gastroenterology 84: 1035–1049, 1983.
 111. Granger, D. N., and G. B. Bulkley. The Measurement of Splanchnic Blood Flow. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins, 1981.
 112. Granger, D. N., P. R. Kvietys, and J. A. Barrowman (editors). Pathophysiology of the Splanchnic Circulation. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1987.
 113. Granger, D. N., G. Rutili, and J. M. Mc Cord. Superoxide radicals in feline intestinal ischemia. Gastroenterology 81: 22–29, 1981.
 114. Greco, A. V., F. Crucitti, G. Ghirlanda, R. Manna, L. Altomonte, A. G. Rebuzzi, and A. Bertoli. Insulin and glucagon concentration in portal and peripheral veins in patients with hepatic cirrhosis. Diabetologia 17: 23–28, 1979.
 115. Green, H. D., R. F. Bond, C. E. Rapela, H. E. Schmid, E. Manley, and J. D. Farrar. Competition between intrinsic and extrinsic controls of resistance vessels of major vascular beds during hemorrhagic hypotension and shock. In: Advances in Shock Research, edited by A. M. Lefer and L. M. Mela. New York: Liss, 1980, vol. 3, p. 77–104.
 116. Greenberg, S. Vascular responses of the perfused intestine to reactive agents during the development of two‐kidney, one‐clip Goldblatt hypertension in dogs. Circ. Res. 48: 895–906, 1981.
 117. Greenway, C. V., A. E. Lawson, and R. D. Stark. The effect of haemorrhage on hepatic artery and portal vein flows in the anaesthetized cat. J. Physiol. Lond. 193: 375–379, 1967.
 118. Greenway, C. V., and V. S. Murthy. Mesenteric vasoconstriction of endotoxin administration in cats pretreated with aspirin. Br. J. Pharmacol. 43: 259–269, 1971.
 119. Greenway, C. V., and G. Oshiro. Effects of histamine on hepatic volume (outflow block) in anaesthetized dogs. Br. J. Pharmacol. 47: 282–290, 1973.
 120. Greenway, C. V., and R. D. Stark. Hepatic vascular bed. Physiol. Rev. 51: 23–65, 1971.
 121. Grosfeld, J. L., K. Kamman, K. Gross, D. Cikrit, D. Ross, M. Wolfe, S. Katz, and T. R. Weber. Comparative effects of indomethicin, prostaglandin E1, and ibuprofen on bowel ischemia. J. Pediat. Surg. 18: 738–742, 1983.
 122. Guth, P. H., and F. W. Leung. Physiology of the gastric circulation. In: Physiology of the Gastrointestinal Tract (2nd ed.), edited by L. R. Johnson. New York: Raven, 1987, vol. 2, p. 1031–1053.
 123. Haddy, F. J. Local regulation of the peripheral vascular system. In: Shock and Hypotension, edited by L. C. Mills and J. H. Moyer. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1965, p. 111–117.
 124. Haglund, U. Vascular reactions in the small intestine of the cat during hemorrhage. Acta Physiol. Scand. 89: 129–141, 1973.
 125. Haglund, U., T. Abe, C. Ahren, I. Braide, and O. Lundgren. Intestinal mucosal lesions in shock. I. Studies on the pathogenesis. Eur. Surg. Res. 8: 435–447, 1976.
 126. Haglund, U., and O. Lundgren. The effects of vasoconstrictor fibre stimulation on the consecutive vascular sections of cat small intestine during hemorrhagic hypotension. Acta Physiol. Scand. 88: 95–108, 1973.
 127. Haglund, U., and O. Lundgren. Intestinal ischemia and shock factors. Federation Proc. 37: 2729–2731, 1978.
 128. Halevy, S., B. T. Altura, and B. M. Altura. Pathophysiological basis for the use of steroids in the treatment of shock and trauma. Klin. Wochenschr. 60: 1021–1030, 1982.
 129. Halinen, M. O., M. O. K. Hakumaki, and H. S. S. Sarajas. Circulatory reflex responses during the initial stage of feline endotoxin shock. Acta Physiol. Scand. 101: 264–269, 1977.
 130. Hall, R. C., and R. L. Hodge. Vasoactive hormones in endotoxin shock: a comparative study in cats and dogs. J. Physiol. Lond. 213: 69–84, 1971.
 131. Hallback, M., Y. Lundgren, and L. Weiss. Reactivity of noradrenaline on aortic strips and portal veins from spontaneously hypertensive and normotensive rats. Acta Physiol. Scand. 81: 176–181, 1971.
 132. Hamilton, G., R. C. F. Phing, R. A. Hutton, P. Dandona, and K. E. F. Hobbs. The relationship between prostacyclin activity and pressure in the portal vein. Hepatology Baltimore 2: 236–242, 1982.
 133. Hanauer, S. B., and S. C. Kraft. Gastrointestinal manifestations of the vasculitis syndromes. In: Bockus Gastroenterology (4th ed.), edited by J. E. Berk. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1984, vol. 7, p. 4525–4544.
 134. Hanquet, M., A. Cession‐Fassion, and J. Lecomte. Changes in catecholamine levels during shock in man. Can. Anaesth. Soc. J. 17: 208–212, 1970.
 135. Harrison, L. H., Jr., L. B. Hinshaw, J. J. Coalson, and L. J. Greenfield. Effects of E. coli septic shock on pulmonary hemodynamics and capillary permeability. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg. 61: 795–803, 1971.
 136. Hawkey, C. J., and S. C. Truelove. Effect of prednisolone on prostaglandin synthesis by rectal mucosa in ulcerative colitis: investigation by laminar flow bioassay and radioimmunoassay. Gut 22: 190–193, 1981.
 137. Hermreck, A. S., and A. P. Thal. Mechanisms for the high circulatory requirements in sepsis and septic shock. Ann. Surg. 170: 677–695, 1969.
 138. Hess, M. L., and N. H. Manson. The paradox of steroid therapy: inhibition of oxygen free radicals. Circ. Shock 10: 1–5, 1983.
 139. Heymans, C., and E. Neil. Reflexogenic Areas of the Cardiovascular System. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1958.
 140. Hildebrand, G. J., J. Ng, Y. Seys, and S. H. Madin. Differentiation between pathogenic mechanisms of early and late phase of endotoxin shock. Am. J. Physiol. 210: 1451–1460, 1966.
 141. Hiley, C. R., and M. S. Yates. The distribution of cardiac output in the anesthetized spontaneously hypertensive rat. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 55: 317–320, 1970.
 142. Hinshaw, L. B. Comparison of responses of canine and primate species to bacteria and bacterial endotoxin. In: Shock in Low‐ and High‐Flow States, edited by B. Forscher, R. C. Lillehei, and S. S. Stubbs. Amsterdam: Excerpta Med., 1980, p. 126–136.
 143. Hinshaw, L. B., L. T. Archer, B. K. Beller‐Todd, B. Benjamin, D. J. Flournoy, and R. Passey. Survival of primates in lethal septic shock following delayed treatment with steroid. Circ. Shock 8: 291–300, 1981.
 144. Hinshaw, L. B., B. Benjamin, D. D. Holmes, B. Bella, S. T. Archer, J. J. Coalson, and T. Whitsett. Responses of the baboon to live Escherichia coli organisms and endotoxin. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 145: 1–11, 1977.
 145. Hinshaw, L. B., D. A. Reins, and R. J. Hill. Response of isolated liver to endotoxin. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 44: 529–541, 1966.
 146. Hinshaw, L. B., L. A. Solomon, D. D. Holmes, and L. J. Greenfield. Comparison of canine responses to Escherichia coli organisms and endotoxin. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 127: 981–988, 1968.
 147. Hulten, L., J. Lindhagen, O. Lundgren, S. Fasth, and C. Ahren. Regional intestinal blood flow in ulcerative colitis and Crohn's disease. Gastroenterology 72: 388–396, 1977.
 148. Hyatt, R. E., G. H. Lawrence, and J. R. Smith. Observations on the origin of ascites from experimental hepatic congestion. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 45: 274–280, 1955.
 149. Itoh, M., and P. H. Guth. Role of oxygen‐derived free radicals in hemorrhagic shock‐induced gastric lesions in the rat. Gastroenterology 88: 1162–1167, 1985.
 150. Itoh, M., F. W. Leung, K. Hirabayashi, and P. H. Guth. Role of blood flow in hemorrhagic shock‐induced gastric injury. Gastroenterology 86: 1122–1130, 1984.
 151. Jacobson, E. D. The circulation of the stomach. Gastroenterology 48: 85–109, 1965.
 152. Jacobson, E. D. Secretion and blood flow in the gastrointestinal tract. In: Handbook of Physiology. Alimentary Canal. Secretion, edited by C. F. Code. Washington, DC: Am. Physiol. Soc., 1967, sect. 6, vol. II, chapt. 59, p. 1043–1062.
 153. Jacobson, E. D. Are adrenergic overactivity and splanchnic vasoconstriction the prime pathophysiological events in shock? In: The Fundamental Mechanisms of Shock, edited by L. B. Hinshaw and B. G. Cox. New York: Plenum, 1972, 109–112.
 154. Jacobson, E. D. Special aspects of endotoxin shock. In: Shock, Metabolic Disorders and Therapy, edited by E. D. Zimmerman, I. Staib, and E. D. Jacobson. New York: Schattauer, 1972. (Engl. ed.)
 155. Jacobson, E. D. Report to the Congress of the United States of the National Commission on Digestive Diseases. Washington, DC: US Govt. Printing Office, 1979, vol. IX, pt. 4, p. 27 (Table 3). [DHEW Publ. No. (NIH) 79–1878.]
 156. Jacobson, E. D., and G. F. Brobmann. The “adrenergic theory” of shock revisited. Med. Counter Point 2: 15–27, 1970.
 157. Jacobson, E. D., and W. E. Farrar, Jr. Influence of route of administration on hemodynamic effects of endotoxin. Am. J. Physiol. 205: 799–802, 1963.
 158. Jodal, M., U. Haglund, and O. Lundgren. Countercurrent exchange mechanisms in the small intestine. In: Physiology of the Intestinal Circulation, edited by A. P. Shepherd and D. N. Granger. New York: Raven, 1984, p. 83–98.
 159. Johansson, C., B. Kollberg, R. Nordemar, K. Samuelson, and S. Berkström. Protective effect of prostaglandin E2 in the gastrointestinal tract during indomethacin treatment of rheumatic disease. Gastroenterology 78: 479–483, 1980.
 160. Johnson, P. C. Myogenic nature of increase in intestinal vascular resistance with venous pressure elevation. Circ. Res. 7: 992–999, 1959.
 161. Johnson, P. C. Autoregulation of intestinal blood flow. Am. J. Physiol. 199: 311–318, 1960.
 162. Johnson, P. C. Origin, localization and homeostatic significance of autoregulation in the intestine. Circ. Res. 15, Suppl. 1: 1225–1232, 1964.
 163. Kalima, T. V., H. Saloniemi, and T. Rahko. Experimental regional enteritis in pigs. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 11: 353–362 1976.
 164. Kamp, M., O. Lundgren, and N. J. Nilsson. Extravascular shunting of oxygen in the small intestine of the cat. Acta Physiol. Scand. 72: 396–406, 1968.
 165. Kapin, M. A., and J. L. Ferguson. Hemodynamic and regional circulatory alterations in dog during anaphylactic challenge. Am. J. Physiol. 249 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 18): H430–H437, 1985.
 166. Keisner, J. B. Observations on the etiology and pathogenesis of inflammatory bowel disease. In: Bockus Gastroenterology (4th ed.), edited by J. E. Berk. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders, 1984, vol. 1, p. 521–539.
 167. Keller, V., C. E. Sonnenberg, D. Buckhardt, and A. Perrichoud. Evidence for an augmented glucagon dependence of hepatic glucose production in cirrhosis of the liver. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 54: 961–968, 1981.
 168. Kellogg, E. W., and I. Fridovich. Superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen in lipid peroxidation by a xanthine oxidase system. J. Biol. Chem. 250: 8812–8816, 1975.
 169. Kellogg, E. W., and I. Fridovich. Liposome oxidation and erythrocyte lysis by enzymatically‐generated superoxide and hydrogen peroxide. J. Biol. Chem. 252: 6721–6727, 1977.
 170. Kelty, R. H., A. H. Baggenstoss, and H. R. Butt. The relation of the regenerated nodule to the vascular bed in cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 15: 285–295, 1950.
 171. Key, J. A. Blood vessels of a gastric ulcer. Br. Med. J. 2: 1464–1471, 1950.
 172. Kitano, S. K., K. Inokuchi, K. Sugimachi, and N. Koyanagi. Hemodynamic and morphological changes in the stomach of portal hypertensive rats. Eur. Surg. Res. 13: 227–235, 1981.
 173. Kitano, S. N., K. Koyanasi, K. Sugimachi, M. Kobayashi, and K. Inokuchi. Mucosal blood flow and modified vascular responses to norepinephrine in the stomach of rats with liver cirrhosis. Eur. Surg. Res. 14: 221–230, 1982.
 174. Kivilaakso, E., D. Fromm, and W. Silen. Relationship between ulceration and intramural pH of gastric mucosa during hemorrhagic shock. Surgery St. Louis 84: 70–79, 1978.
 175. Klass, A. A. The treatment of superior mesenteric artery occlusion: a reappraisal. Can. Med. Assoc. J. 93: 309–312, 1965.
 176. Kock, N. G., S. Tiblin, and W. G. Schenk. Modification by glucagon of the splanchnic vascular responses to activation of the sympathetic adrenal system. J. Surg. Res. 11: 12–17, 1971.
 177. Krenitsky, T. A., J. V. Tuttle, E. L. Cattau, and P. Wang. A comparison of the distribution and electron acceptor specialties of xanthine oxidase and aldehyde oxidase. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B. Comp. Biochem. 49: 687–703, 1974.
 178. Kuida, H., R. P. Gilbert, L. B. Hinshaw, J. G. Brunson, and M. B. Visscher. Species differences in effect of gram‐negative endotoxin on circulation. Am. J. Physiol. 200: 1197–1202, 1961.
 179. Kullmann, R., and H. G. Junk. Differential sympathetic response during coronary occlusion. Res. Exp. Med. 160: 317–320, 1973.
 180. Kwaan, H. C., A. Cocco, A. I. Mendeloff, and T. Astrup. Fibrinolytic activity in the normal and inflamed rectal mucosa. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 4: 441–445, 1969.
 181. Laine, G. A., and H. J. Granger. Permeability of intestinal capillaries in chronic arterial hypertension (Abstract). Microvasc. Res. 21: 248, 1981.
 182. Lanciault, G., W. F. Fang, E. D. Jacobson, and J. C. Bowen. Evaluation of potential agents for treatment of non‐occlusive mesenteric ischemia in dogs. Circ. Shock 3: 239–246, 1976.
 183. Lanciault, G., and E. D. Jacobson. The gastrointestinal circulation. Gastroenterology 71: 851–873, 1976.
 184. Lanzafame, R. J., J. O. Naim, Z. M. Tomkiewicz, and J. R. Hinshaw. The effect of heparin on intestinal survival in experimental small intestinal ischemia. Curr. Surg. 40: 438–440, 1983.
 185. Leung, F. W., M. Itoh, K. Hirabayashi, and P. H. Guth. Role of blood flow in gastric and duodenal mucosal injury in the rat. Gastroenterology 88: 281–289, 1985.
 186. Leung, F. W., A. Robert, and P. H. Guth. Gastric mucosal blood flow in rats after 16,16‐dimethyl prostaglandin E2 given at a cytoprotective dose. Gastroenterology 88: 1948–1953, 1985.
 187. Levine, B. A., H. V. Gaskill III, and K. R. Sirinek. Gastric mucosal blood flow. J. Trauma 23: 278–284, 1983.
 188. Levine, B. A., W. H. Schweninger, and K. R. Sirinek. Cimetidine prevents reduction in gastric mucosal blood flow during shock. Surgery St. Louis 84: 113–119, 1978.
 189. Ley, K., and K. E. Arfors. Changes in micromolecular permeability by intravascular generation of oxygen‐derived free radicals. Microvasc. Res. 24: 25–33, 1982.
 190. Liard, J. F. Regional blood flows in salt loading hypertension in the dog. Am. J. Physiol. 240 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 9): H361–H367, 1981.
 191. Ligumsky, M., F. Karmeli, P. Sharon, U. Zoi, F. Cohen, and D. Rachmilewitz. Enhanced thromboxane A2 and prostacyclin production by cultured rectal mucosa in ulcerative colitis and its inhibition by steroids and sulfasalazine. Gastroenterology 81: 444–449, 1981.
 192. Lillehei, C. W., and O. H. Wangensteen. Effect of celiac ganglionectomy upon experimental peptic ulcer formation. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 68: 369–372, 1948.
 193. Lillehei, R. C., J. K. Longerbeam, J. H. Bloch, and W. G. Manax. The modern treatment of shock based on physiological principles. Clin. Pharmacol. Ther. 5: 63–101, 1964.
 194. Lillehei, R. C., J. K. Longerbeam, J. H. Bloch, and W. G. Manax. The nature of experimental irreversible shock with its clinical implications. In: Shock, edited by S. G. Hershey. Boston, MA: Little, Brown, 1964, p. 139–205.
 195. Lillihei, R. C., J. K. Longerbeam, J. H. Block, and W. G. Manax. The nature of irreversible shock: experimental and clinical observations. Ann. Surg. 160: 682–710, 1964.
 196. Lintermans, J. P., A. J. Appel, R. S. Bloom, G. L. Mullins, and W. G. Guntheroth. Mesenteric blood flow and vascular volume in hemorrhagic shock. Am. J. Physiol. 212: 482–487, 1967.
 197. Lucas, P. D., and J. M. Foy. Effects of experimental diabetes and genetic obesity on regional blood flow in the rat. Diabetes 26: 786–792, 1977.
 198. Lundgren, O. Studies in blood flow distribution and counter‐current exchange in the small intestine. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 303: 1–42, 1967.
 199. Lundgren, O., and J. Svanvik. Mucosal hemodynamics in the small intestine of the cat during reduced perfusion pressure. Acta Physiol. Scand. 88: 551–562, 1973.
 200. Lynch, T. A., W. L. Highly, and A. G. Worton. Gastric ulcers induced by phenylephrine in certain pharmaceutical compositions. J. Pharm. Sci. 53: 1077–1081, 1964.
 201. MacKenzie, G. J., S. H. Taylor, D. C. Flenley, A. H. McDonald, H. P. Staunton, and K. W. Donald. Circulatory and respiratory studies in myocardial infarction and cardiogenic shock. Lancet 2: 825–832, 1964.
 202. MacLean, L. D., W. G. Mulligan, A. P. N. MacLean, and J. N. Duff. Patterns of septic shock in man—a detailed study of 56 patients. Ann. Surg. 166: 543–562, 1967.
 203. MacPherson, B. R., and C. J. Pfeiffer. Experimental colitis. Digestion 14: 425–452, 1976.
 204. Madden, J. L., J. M. Lore, F. P. Gerold, and J. M. Ravid. Pathogenesis of ascites and the consideration of its treatment. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 99: 385–391, 1954.
 205. Malliani, A., P. J. Schwartz, and A. Zanchetti. A sympathetic reflex elicited by experimental coronary occlusion. Am. J. Physiol. 217: 703–709, 1969.
 206. Manku, M. S., D. F. Horrobin, S. C. Cunnane, A. I. Ally, M. Karamazyn, R. A. Karamali, R. O. Morgan, K. D. Nocholson, and W. E. Barnette. Prostaglandins E1, E2 and I2: evidence for three distinct actions in vascular smooth muscle. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 83: 295–299, 1978.
 207. Marchesini, G., G. Bianchi, M. Zoli, C. Dondi, G. Forlani, A. Melli, V. Bus, P. Vannini, and E. Pisi. Plasma amino acid response to protein ingestion in patients with liver cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 85: 283–290, 1983.
 208. Marco, J., J. Diego, M. L. Villaneuva, J. Diaz‐Fierros, I. Valverde, and J. M. Segovia. Elevated plasma glucagon levels in cirrhosis of the liver. N. Engl. J. Med. 289: 1107–1111, 1973.
 209. Marklund, S. Distribution of CuZn superoxide dismutase and Mn superoxide dismutase in human tissue and extracellular fluids. Acta Physiol. Scand. 492: 19–24, 1980.
 210. Marston, A., M. T. Pheils, M. L. Thomas, and B. C. Moison. Ischaemic colitis. Gut 7: 1–15, 1966.
 211. McCay, P. B. Vitamin E: interactions with free radicals and ascorbate. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 5: 323–340, 1985.
 212. McCord, J. M. Free radicals and inflammation: protection of synovial fluid by superoxide dismutase. Science Wash. DC 185: 529–531, 1974.
 213. McCord, J. M., K. Wong, S. H. Stokes, W. F. Petrone, and D. English. Superoxide and inflammation: a mechanism for the anti‐inflammatory activity of superoxide dismutase. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 492: 25–30, 1980.
 214. McGreevey, J. M., and F. G. Moody. Protection of gastric mucosa against aspirin‐induced erosions by enhanced blood flow. Surg. Forum 28: 357–360, 1977.
 215. McGregor, D. D., and F. H. Smirk. Vascular responses in mesenteric arteries from genetic and renal hypertensive rats. Am. J. Physiol. 214: 1429–1433, 1968.
 216. McIndoc, A. H. Vascular lesions of portal cirrhosis. Arch. Pathol. 5: 23–42, 1928.
 217. McNeill, J. R., R. D. Stark, and C. V. Greenway. Intestinal vasoconstriction after hemorrhage: roles of vasopressin and angiotensin. Am. J. Physiol. 219: 1342–1347, 1970.
 218. Mead, J. F. Free radical mechanisms of lipid damage and consequences for cellular membranes. In: Free Radicals in Biology, edited by W. A. Pryor. New York: Academic, 1976, vol. 1, p. 51–68.
 219. Menguy, R., and Y. F. Masters. Gastric mucosal energy metabolism and “stress ulceration.” Ann. Surg. 180: 538–548, 1974.
 220. Mersereau, W. A., and E. J. Hinchey. Effect of gastric acidity on gastric ulceration induced by hemorrhage in the rat, utilizing a gastric chamber technique. Gastroenterology 64: 1130–1135, 1973.
 221. Messeili, F. H., J. Genest, W. Norvaczyndki, O. Kirchel, M. Honda, Y. Latour, and G. Dumont. Splanchnic blood flow in essential hypertension and in hypertensive patients with renal artery stenosis. Circulation 51: 1114–1119, 1975.
 222. Mózsik, G., T. Jávor, G. Tóth, T. Zsoldos, and A. Tigyi. Interrelationships between the gastric cytoprotective effects of vitamin A and B‐carotene and the gastric mucosal superoxide dismutase activity in rats. Acta Physiol. Hung. 64: 315–318, 1984.
 223. Mózsik, G., T. Jávor, T. Zsoldos, and A. Tigyi. The interrelationships between the development of ethanol‐, HCl‐, NaOH‐ and NaCl‐induced gastric mucosal damage and the gastric mucosal superoxide dismutase activity in the rats. Acta Physiol. Hung. 64: 309–314, 1984.
 224. Nedzel, A. J. Experimental production of gastric ulcers in dogs by inducing vascular spasm with pitressin. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 10: 283–291, 1943.
 225. Ng, K. K. F., S. Duffey, W. J. Louis, and A. E. Doyle. Interaction of angiotensin II with catecholamines in the circulation of the dog and cat. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 51: 4515–4545, 1976.
 226. Nishiyama, K., A. Nishiyama, and E. D. Frohlich. Regional blood flow in normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 691–698, 1976.
 227. Norlén, K., L. Rentzhog, and S. Wikström. Hemodynamic effects of phenoxybenzamine and volume replacement in segmental ischemia of the rat small intestine. Acta Chir. Scand. 144: 299–305, 1978.
 228. Norlén, K., L. Rentzhog, and S. Wikström. The effect of dopamine in segmental ischemia of the small intestine in the rat. Acta Chir. Scand. 144: 313–320, 1978.
 229. Novelli, G. P., C. Cortesine, and E. Pagni. The role of splanchnic adrenergic vasoconstriction in the development of irreversibility of hemorrhagic shock. Adv. Exp. Biol. Med. 9: 103–116, 1969.
 230. Nyhof, R. A., G. A. Laine, G. A. Meininger, and H. J. Granger. Splanchnic circulation in hypertension. Federation Proc. 42: 1690–1693, 1983.
 231. Oberg, B. Aspects on the reflex control of capillary filtration transfer between blood and interstitial fluid. Med. Exp. 9: 49–61, 1963.
 232. O'Brien, P., and W. Silen. Effects of bile salts and aspirin on the gastric mucosal blood flow. Gastroenterology 64: 246–251, 1973.
 233. Ohman, U. The effects of luminal distension and obstruction on the intestinal circulation. In: Physiology of the Intestinal Circulation, edited by A. P. Shepherd and D. N. Granger. New York: Raven, 1984, p. 321–334.
 234. Page, D. L., J. B. Caufield, J. A. Kastor, R. W. De Sanctis, and C. A. Snoders. Myocardial changes associated with cardiogenic shock. N. Engl. J. Med. 285: 133–137, 1971.
 235. Pamnani, M. B., G. Simon, and H. W. Overbeck. Increased mesenteric blood flow and decreased mesenteric venous compliance in dogs with chronic perinephritic hypertension. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 161: 397–401, 1979.
 236. Parks, D. A., G. B. Bulkley, D. N. Granger, B. R. Hamilton, and J. M. McCord. Ischemic injury in the cat small intestine: role of superoxide radicals. Gastroenterology 82: 9–14, 1982.
 237. Parks, D. A., and D. N. Granger. Ischemia‐induced vascular changes: role of xanthine oxidase and hydroxyl radicals. Am. J. Physiol. 245 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 8): G285–G289, 1983.
 238. Parks, D. A., and D. N. Granger. Effects of catalase on ischemia‐induced vascular permeability changes in the small intestine. Gastroenterology 84: 1207–1212, 1984.
 239. Parks, D. A., and D. N. Granger. Contributions of ischemia and reperfusion to mucosal lesion formation. Am. J. Physiol. 250 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 13): G749–G753, 1986.
 240. Parks, D. A., and E. D. Jacobson. Intestinal ischemia. In: Pathophysiology of the Splanchnic Circulation, edited by D. N. Granger, P. R. Kvietys, and J. A. Barrowman. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1987, vol. 1, p. 125–140.
 241. Parks, D. A., A. K. Shah, and D. N. Granger. Oxygen radicals: effects on intestinal vascular permeability. Am. J. Physiol. 247 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 10): G167–G172, 1984.
 242. Parratt, J. R. Neurohumoral agents and their release in shock. In: Handbook of Shock and Trauma. Basic Science, edited by B. M. Altura, A. M. Lefer, and W. Schumer. New York: Raven, 1983, vol. 1, p. 311–336.
 243. Parving, H. H., and F. Gyntelberg. Transcapillary escape rate of albumin and plasma volume in essential hypertension. Circ. Res. 32: 643–651, 1973.
 244. Patart, O., M. Desnos, G. Leroy, Y. Lauru, M. Mogenet, M. Garbay, A. Barrilon, and A. Gerbaux. Nécrose hémorragique du tube digestif au cours d'une intoxication digitaleque massive. Nouv. Presse Med. 10: 1489–1491, 1981.
 245. Patterson, R. Laboratory models of reagenic allergy. Prog. Allergy 13: 332–407, 1969.
 246. Pavek, K. Anaphylactic shock in the monkey: its hemodynamics and mediators. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 21: 293–307, 1977.
 247. Payne, J. G., and J. C. Bowen. Hypoxia of canine gastric mucosa caused by Escherichia coli sepsis and prevented with methylprednisolone therapy. Gastroenterology 80: 84–93, 1981.
 248. Pearce, R. M., and A. B. Eisenbrey. The physiology of anaphylactic “shock” in the dog. J. Infect. Dis. 7: 565–576, 1910.
 249. Picazo, J. (editor). Glucagon in Gastroenterology and Hepatology: Pharmacological, Clinical and Therapeutic Implications. Lancaster, UK: MTP, 1982.
 250. Price, A. B. Overlap in the spectrum of non‐specific inflammatory bowel disease—colitis indeterminate. J. Clin. Pathol. 31: 567–577, 1978.
 251. Price, W. E., G. V. Rohrer, and E. D. Jacobson. Mesenteric vascular diseases. Gastroenterology 57: 599–604, 1969.
 252. Proctor, P. H. Free radicals and disease in man. Physiol. Chem. Phys. Med. NMR 16: 175–195, 1984.
 253. Rachmilewitz, D., M. Ligumsky, A. Haimovitz, and A. J. Treves. Prostanoid synthesis by cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells in inflammatory disease of the bowel. Gastroenterology 82: 673–679, 1982.
 254. Ravid, M., D. Van‐Dyk, J. Bernheim, and I. Kedar. The protective effect of dimethyl sulfoxide in experimental ischemia of the intestine. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 411: 100–104, 1983.
 255. Rees, M., J. G. Payne, and J. C. Bowen. Naloxone reverses tissue effects of live Escherichia coli sepsis. Surgery 91: 81–86, 1982.
 256. Reeves, T. B. A study of the arteries supplying the stomach and duodenum and their relation to ulcers. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 30: 374–382, 1920.
 257. Ricci, J. L., H. A. Sloviter, and M. M. Ziegler. Intestinal ischemia: reduction and mortality utilizing intraluminal perfluorochemical. Am. J. Surg. 149: 84–92, 1985.
 258. Richardson, J. D., M. H. Max, L. M. Flint, W. Schweisinger, M. Howard, and J. B. Aust. Bleeding vascular malformations of the intestine. Surgery St. Louis 3: 430–436, 1978.
 259. Ritchie, W. P., Jr. Acute gastric mucosal damage induced by bile salts, acid and ischemia. Gastroenterology 68: 699–707, 1975.
 260. Ritchie, W. P., Jr., and K. J. Cherry. Influence of hydrogen ion concentration on bile acid‐induced acute gastric mucosal ulcerogenesis. Ann. Surg. 189: 637–645, 1979.
 261. Ritchie, W. P., Jr., and R. P. Fisher. Studies on the pathogenesis of “stress ulcers”; electrical potential differences and ionic fluxes across canine gastric mucosa during hemorrhagic shock. J. Surg. Res. 3: 173–176, 1972.
 262. Ritchie, W. P., Jr., and E. W. Shearburn III. Influence of isoproterenol and cholestyramine on acute gastric mucosal ulcerogenesis. Gastroenterology 73: 62–65, 1977.
 263. Robinson, J. W. L., and U. Mirovitch. The roles of intraluminal oxygen and glucose in the protection of the rat intestinal mucosa from the effects of ischemia. Biomedicine Paris 27: 60–67, 1977.
 264. Rokitansky, C. Lehrbuch der pathologischen Anatomie. Vienna: Braumüller, 1855, vol. I.
 265. Rothe, C. F., F. C. Schwendenmann, and E. E. Selkurt. Neurogenic control of skeletal muscular vascular resistance in hemorrhagic shock. Am. J. Physiol. 204: 925–932, 1963.
 266. Ruffin, J. M., and I. W. Brown, Jr. The significance of hemorrhagic or pigment spots as observed by gastroscopy. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 10: 60–70, 1943.
 267. Rutherford, R. B., J. V. Bales, R. S. Trow, and G. M. Graves. Comparison of hemodynamic and regional blood flow changes at equivalent states of endotoxin and hemorrhagic shock. J. Trauma 16: 886–897, 1976.
 268. Saegesser, F., H. Loosli, J. W. L. Robinson, and U. Roenspies. Ischemic diseases of the large intestine. Int. Surg. 66: 103–117, 1981.
 269. Said, S. I. Vasoactive peptides: state of the art review. Hypertension 5, Suppl. 1: 17–26, 1983.
 270. Schindler, R., and R. I. Boxmeier. Mucosal changes accompanying gastric ulcer: a gastroscopic study. Ann. Int. Med. 13: 693–699, 1939.
 271. Schoenberg, M. H., E. Muhl, D. Sellin, M. Younes, F. W. Schildberg, and U. Haglund. Posthypotensive generation of superoxide free radicals—possible role in the pathogenesis of the intestinal mucosal damage. Acta Chir. Scand. 150: 301–309, 1984.
 272. Schutz, C. B. The etiology of gastric and duodenal ulcers. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 96: 2182–2185, 1931.
 273. Schwaiger, M., J. D. Fondacaro, and E. D. Jacobson. Effects of glucagon, histamine, and perhexiline on the ischemic canine mesenteric circulation. Gastroenterology 77: 730–735, 1979.
 274. Seaman, K. L., and C. V. Greenway. Loss of hepatic venous responsiveness after endotoxin in anesthetized cats. Am. J. Physiol. 246 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 15): H658–H663, 1984.
 275. Seyde, W. C., L. McGowan, N. Lund, B. Duling, and D. E. Longnecker. Effects of anesthetics on regional hemodynamics in normovolemic and hemorrhaged rats. Am. J. Physiol. 249 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 18): H164–H173, 1985.
 276. Shanbour, L. L., and E. D. Jacobson. Digitalis and the mesenteric circulation. Am. J. Dig. Dis. 17: 826–828, 1972.
 277. Shanbour, L. L., E. D. Jacobson, G. F. Brobmann, and L. B. Hinshaw. Effects of ouabain on splanchnic hemodynamics in the rhesus monkey. Am. Heart J. 81: 511–515, 1971.
 278. Shepherd, A. P., and D. N. Granger. Physiology of the Intestinal Circulation. New York: Raven, 1984.
 279. Shepherd, A. P., C. C. Mao, and E. D. Jacobson. The role of cyclic AMP in mesenteric vasodilation. Microvasc. Res. 6: 332–344, 1973.
 280. Sherivin, R., P. Joshi, R. Hendler, P. Felig, and H. O. Conn. Hyperglucagonemia in Laennec's cirrhosis. The role of portal systemic shunting. N. Engl. J. Med. 290: 239–242, 1974.
 281. Shore, L. Interrelations between vasopressin and the renin‐angiotensin system. Federation Proc. 38: 2267–2271, 1979.
 282. Shute, K. Effect of intraluminal oxygen on experimental ischemia of the intestine. Gut 17: 100–107, 1976.
 283. Siegel, J. H., F. B. Cerra, B. Coleman, I. Giovannini, M. Shetye, J. R. Border, and R. H. McMenamy. Physiological and metabolic correlations in human sepsis. Surgery St. Louis 86: 163–193, 1979.
 284. Sikuler, E., D. Kravetz, and R. J. Groszmann. Evolution of portal hypertension and mechanisms involved in its maintenance in a rat model. Am. J. Physiol. 248 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 11): G618–G625, 1985.
 285. Simon, G., M. B. Pamnani, J. F. Dunkel, and H. W. Overbeck. Mesenteric hemodynamics in early experimental renal hypertension in dogs. Circ. Res. 36: 791–798, 1975.
 286. Simons, M. A., F. G. Moody, and M. G. Tormas. Effects of carbenoxolone on gastric mucosal permeability and blood flows in the dog. Gastroenterology 71: 603–609, 1976.
 287. Skillman, J. J., S. A. Gould, R. S. K. Chung, and W. Silen. The gastric mucosal barrier: clinical and experimental studies in critically ill and normal man and in the rabbit. Ann. Surg. 172: 564–574, 1930.
 288. Smith, P. R., D. J. Dawson, and C. H. J. Swan. Prostaglandin synthetase activity in acute ulcerative colitis: effects of treatment with sulphasalazine, codeine phosphate and prednisalone. Gut 20: 802–805, 1979.
 289. Snedegard, G., R. Bjorn, and K. E. Arfors. Anaphylaxis in the monkey: hemodynamics and blood flow distribution. Acta Physiol. Scand. 106: 191–198, 1979.
 290. Snedegard, G., B. Revenas, and T. Saldeen. Anaphylaxis in the monkey: hematological and histological findings. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 25: 11–18, 1979.
 291. Stark, R. D., J. R. McNeill, and C. V. Greenway. Sympathetic and hypophyseal roles in the splenic response to hemorrhage. Am. J. Physiol. 220: 837–840, 1971.
 292. Svanes, K., K. A. Leiknes, J. Varhaug, and O. Screide. Aspirin damage to ischemic gastric mucosa in shocked cats. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 14: 633–644, 1979.
 293. Svanes, K., J. E. Varhang, P. Holm, A. Bakke, and I. Romslo. Effects of hemorrhagic shock in gastric blood flow and acid secretion in cats. Acta Chir. Scand. 147: 81–88 1981.
 294. Swan, K. G., R. W. Barton, and D. G. Reynolds. Mesenteric hemodynamics during endotoxemia in the baboon. Gastroenterology 61: 872–876, 1971.
 295. Swan, K. G., and D. G. Reynolds. Splanchnic blood flow in experimental shock. In: The Fundamental Mechanisms of Shock, edited by L. B. Hinshaw and B. G. Cox. New York: Plenum, 1972, p. 87–103.
 296. Swan, K. G., H. H. Trout III, and D. G. Reynolds. Endotoxemia and large intestinal blood flow from subhuman primates. Circ. Shock 4: 369–377, 1979.
 297. Temmar, M. M., M. E. Safar, J. A. Levinson, J. M. Totomoukono, and A. C. Simon. Regional blood flow in borderline and sustained essential hypertension. Clin. Sci. 60: 653–658, 1981.
 298. Tepperman, B. L., and E. D. Jacobson. Circulatory factor in gastric ulcers. In: Peptic Ulcers, edited by F. P. Brooks. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1985, p. 261–278.
 299. Tobia, A. J., J. Y. Lee, and G. M. Walsh. Regional blood flow and vascular resistance in the spontaneously hypertensive rat. Cardiovasc. Res. 8: 758–762, 1974.
 300. Tobia, A. J., G. M. Walsh, A. S. Tadepalli, and J. Y. Lee. Unaltered distribution of cardiac output in the conscious young spontaneously hypertensive rat: evidence for uniform elevation of regional vascular resistances. Blood Vessels 11: 287–294, 1974.
 301. Treat, E., H. B. Ulano, and E. D. Jacobson. Effects of intra‐arterial ouabain on mesenteric and carotid hemodynamics. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 179: 144–148, 1971.
 302. Tyler, G., R. A. Clark, and E. D. Jacobson. Nonocclusive intestinal ischemia treated with intraarterial infusion of prostaglandin E1. Cardiovasc. Interventional Radiol. 5: 16–19, 1982.
 303. Ulano, H. B., E. Treat, L. L. Shanbour, and E. D. Jacobson. Selective dilation of the constricted superior mesenteric artery. Gastroenterology 62: 39–47, 1972.
 304. Ulrych, M. Plasma volume decrease and elevated Evans blue disappearance rate in essential hypertension. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 45: 173–181, 1973.
 305. Virchow, R. Historisches, Kritisches and Positives zue Lehre der Unterleibsaffektionen. Virchows Arch. Pathol. Anat. Physiol. Klin. Med. 5: 632–650, 1853.
 306. Vorobioff, J., J. E. Bredfeldt, and R. J. Groszmann. Hyperdynamic circulation in portal‐hypertensive rat model: a primary factor for maintenance of chronic portal hypertension. Am. J. Physiol. 244 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 7): G52–G57, 1983.
 307. Wallentin, I. Studies on intestinal circulation. Acta Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 279: 1–38, 1966.
 308. Wang, S. C., and R. R. Overman. A neurogenic factor in experimental traumatic shock. A summary of recent studies including observations on procainized and spinal dogs. Ann. Surg. 129: 207–222, 1949.
 309. Watts, D. T. Adrenergic mechanisms in hypovolemic shock. In: Shock and Hypotension, edited by L. C. Mills and J. H. Moyer. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1965, p. 385–391.
 310. Weidner, M. G., M. Albrecht, and G. H. A. Clowes. Relationship of myocardial function to survival after oligemic hypotension. Surgery St. Louis 55: 73–84, 1964.
 311. Weil, M. H., L. D. MacLean, M. B. Visscher, and W. W. Spink. Studies on the circulatory changes in the dog produced by endotoxin from gram negative micro‐organisms. J. Clin. Invest. 35: 1191–1198, 1956.
 312. Weil, M. H., and H. N. Nishijima. Cardiac output in bacterial shock. Am. J. Med. 64: 920–922, 1978.
 313. Weil, M. H., and W. W. Spink. A comparison of shock due to endotoxin with anaphylactic shock. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 50: 501–515, 1957.
 314. Whipple, A. O. The problem of portal hypertension in relation to the hepatospleenopothies. Ann. Surg. 122: 449–475, 1945.
 315. White, F. N., G. Ross, L. Barajas, and E. D. Jacobson. Hemodynamics of endotoxin shock in the rat and the effects of phenoxybenzamine. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 122: 1025–1029, 1966.
 316. Whittle, B. J. R. Mechanisms underlying gastric mucosal damage induced by indomethacin and bile salts and the actions of prostaglandins. Br. J. Pharmacol. 60: 455–461, 1977.
 317. Wiggers, C. J. The functional consequences of coronary occlusion. Ann. Int. Med. 23: 158–169, 1945.
 318. Wilkins, R. W., J. W. Culbertson, and A. A. Rymut. The hepatic blood flow in resting hypertensive patients before and after splanchnicectomy. J. Clin. Invest. 31: 529–531, 1952.
 319. Winslow, E. J., H. S. Loeb, S. H. Rahimtoola, S. Kamath, and R. M. Gunnar. Hemodynamic studies and results of therapy in 50 patients with bacteremic shock. Am. J. Med. 54: 421–432, 1973.
 320. Witte, C. L., Y. C. Chung, M. N. Witte, O. F. Sterle, and W. R. Cole. Observations on the origin of ascites from experimental extrahepatic portal congestion. Ann. Surg. 170: 1002–1015, 1969.
 321. Witte, C. L., and M. H. Witte. Splanchnic circulatory and tissue fluid dynamics in portal hypertension. Federation Proc. 42: 1685–1689, 1983.
 322. Witte, C. L., M. H. Witte, G. Bain, W. P. Mobley, and D. Morton. Experimental study of hyperdynamic vs. stagnant mesenteric blood flow in portal hypertension. Ann. Surg. 179: 304–310, 1974.
 323. Witte, C. L., M. H. Witte, and A. E. Dumont. The portal triad in hepatic cirrhosis. Surg. Gynecol. Obstet. 146: 965–974, 1978.
 324. Witte, C. L., M. H. Witte, and A. E. Dumont. Lymph imbalance in the genesis and perpetuation of the ascites syndrome in hepatic cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 78: 1059–1068, 1980.
 325. Witte, M. H., C. L. Witte, and A. E. Dumont. Physiologic factors involved in the causation of cirrhotic ascites. Gastroenterology 61: 742–750, 1971.
 326. Wolf, E. A., and D. S. Sumner. Redistribution of intestinal blood flow during hypotension. Surg. Forum 24: 20–22, 1973.
 327. Woolf, A. C. Techniques of post mortem angiography of the stomach. Br. J. Radiol. 23: 8–12, 1950.
 328. Wyler, F., R. F. Forsyth, A. S. Nies, J. M. Neutze, and K. L. Melmon. Endotoxin‐induced regional circulatory changes in the unanesthetized monkey. Circ. Res. 24: 777–786, 1969.
 329. Younes, M., M. H. Schoenberg, H. Jung, B. B. Fredholm, U. Haglund, and F. W. Schildberg. Oxidative tissue damage following regional intestinal ischemia and reperfusion in the cat. Res. Exp. Med. 184: 259–264, 1984.
 330. Yu, Y. M., L. C. C. Yu, and C. C. Chou. Distribution of blood flow in the intestine with hypertonic glucose in the lumen. Surgery St. Louis 78: 520–525, 1975.
 331. Zetterström, B. E. M. Effect of denervation on blood flow in the dog spleen during haemorrhagic shock. Acta Chir. Scand. 139: 111–116, 1973.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Pathophysiology of gastrointestinal circulation
 

How to Cite

Robert H. Gallavan, Dale A. Parks, Eugene D. Jacobson. Pathophysiology of gastrointestinal circulation. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 16: Handbook of Physiology, The Gastrointestinal System, Motility and Circulation: 1713-1732. First published in print 1989. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp060147