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Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide

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Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Isolation of Porcine VIP and PHI
2 Amino Acid Sequence of VIP and PHI
3 Radioimmunoassay of VIP/PHI
4 Distribution and Location of VIP
4.1 Gastrointestinal Tract
4.2 Pancreas
4.3 Other Exocrine Glands
4.4 Endocrine Organs
4.5 Respiratory Tract
4.6 Genitourinary Tract
4.7 Cardiovascular System
4.8 Central Nervous System
4.9 Peripheral Ganglia and Nerves
4.10 Subcellular Distribution of VIP
5 Coexistence of VIP and Acetylcholine
6 Distribution of PHI/PHM: Coexistence with VIP
7 Pharmacological Effects of VIP/PHI
8 Release and Physiological Function of VIP/PHI
8.1 Salivary Glands
8.2 Esophagus
8.3 Stomach
8.4 Small and Large Intestines
8.5 Pancreas
8.6 Other Organs
9 Corelease of VIP, PHI, and Acetylcholine: Physiological Implications
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Schematic representation of structure of human prepro VIP/PHM. Putative signal peptide is from 1 to 21, PHM is from 81 to 107, and VIP is from 125 to 152. Amino acid residues at posttranslational processing site are shown.

Adapted from Itoh et al. 112
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Pharmacological characteristics of splanchnic VIP release in pigs. Release of VIP into portal vein was measured after 5 min of efferent vagal stimulation before and after intravenous injection of atropine (0.5–2.0 mg/kg), adrenergic blockade (propranolol and phenoxybenzamine, both 1 mg/kg), or hexamethonium (10 mg/kg). Values are means ± SE of 4–16 experiments.

Data from Fahrenkrug et al. 73
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Simultaneous VIP release from stomach (upper panel) and gastric relaxation (lower panel) induced by vagal reflex activation (distension of proximal part of esophagus) in anesthetized, atropinized cats). Medians (solid lines) and ranges (dashed lines) of 6 experiments are shown.

From Fahrenkrug et al. 74
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Left: frequency‐response curves for neurally induced relaxation in guinea pig taenia coli in absence (closed circles) and presence (open circles) of VIP antiserum in organ bath. Asterisks, significant differences (P < 0.01). Values are means ± SE of 5 experiments. Right: frequency‐response curves for neurally induced relaxation in guinea pig taenia coli in absence (closed circles) and presence (open circles) of irreversible ATP antagonist (BzATP).

From Grider et al. 92
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Effect of atropine (10−6M) on VIP output and exocrine secretion during electrical vagal stimulation (4–12 Hz) of isolated perfused pig pancreas. Open circles, values significantly different from prestimulation values. Asterisks, significant differences between paired experiments with (upper panel) or without (lower panel) atropine. Values are means ± SE of 7 perfusion experiments.

From Hoist et al. 107
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Principal arrangement of parasympathetic innervation of exocrine glands. Preganglionic cholinergic fibers synapse in autonomic ganglia and activate nicotinic receptors on postganglionic neurons, which may also contain VIP and PHI. In the glands VIP, PHI, and acetylcholine may have an effect on vascular smooth muscle (sm), myoepithelial cells (me), acinar cells, and ducts. For clarity postganglionic innervation has been shown as originating from one neuron. Whether the same neuron can innervate more than one type of effector cell has yet to be established. Open circles, vesicles containing acetylcholine; closed circles, vesicles containing VIP and PHI.

Adapted from Lundberg et al. 152


Figure 1.

Schematic representation of structure of human prepro VIP/PHM. Putative signal peptide is from 1 to 21, PHM is from 81 to 107, and VIP is from 125 to 152. Amino acid residues at posttranslational processing site are shown.

Adapted from Itoh et al. 112


Figure 2.

Pharmacological characteristics of splanchnic VIP release in pigs. Release of VIP into portal vein was measured after 5 min of efferent vagal stimulation before and after intravenous injection of atropine (0.5–2.0 mg/kg), adrenergic blockade (propranolol and phenoxybenzamine, both 1 mg/kg), or hexamethonium (10 mg/kg). Values are means ± SE of 4–16 experiments.

Data from Fahrenkrug et al. 73


Figure 3.

Simultaneous VIP release from stomach (upper panel) and gastric relaxation (lower panel) induced by vagal reflex activation (distension of proximal part of esophagus) in anesthetized, atropinized cats). Medians (solid lines) and ranges (dashed lines) of 6 experiments are shown.

From Fahrenkrug et al. 74


Figure 4.

Left: frequency‐response curves for neurally induced relaxation in guinea pig taenia coli in absence (closed circles) and presence (open circles) of VIP antiserum in organ bath. Asterisks, significant differences (P < 0.01). Values are means ± SE of 5 experiments. Right: frequency‐response curves for neurally induced relaxation in guinea pig taenia coli in absence (closed circles) and presence (open circles) of irreversible ATP antagonist (BzATP).

From Grider et al. 92


Figure 5.

Effect of atropine (10−6M) on VIP output and exocrine secretion during electrical vagal stimulation (4–12 Hz) of isolated perfused pig pancreas. Open circles, values significantly different from prestimulation values. Asterisks, significant differences between paired experiments with (upper panel) or without (lower panel) atropine. Values are means ± SE of 7 perfusion experiments.

From Hoist et al. 107


Figure 6.

Principal arrangement of parasympathetic innervation of exocrine glands. Preganglionic cholinergic fibers synapse in autonomic ganglia and activate nicotinic receptors on postganglionic neurons, which may also contain VIP and PHI. In the glands VIP, PHI, and acetylcholine may have an effect on vascular smooth muscle (sm), myoepithelial cells (me), acinar cells, and ducts. For clarity postganglionic innervation has been shown as originating from one neuron. Whether the same neuron can innervate more than one type of effector cell has yet to be established. Open circles, vesicles containing acetylcholine; closed circles, vesicles containing VIP and PHI.

Adapted from Lundberg et al. 152
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Jan Fahrenkrug. Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 17: Handbook of Physiology, The Gastrointestinal System, Neural and Endocrine Biology: 611-629. First published in print 1989. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp060225