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Amylin and Related Proteins: Physiology and Pathophysiology

Garth J. S. Cooper

10.1002/cphy.cp070210

Source: Supplement 21: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, The Endocrine Pancreas and Regulation of Metabolism

Originally published: 2001

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Protein Chemistry of Amylin
1.1 Isolation, Structure, Nomenclature, and Evolutionary Relationships
1.2 Chemical Synthesis
1.3 Molecular Structure of Soluble Amylin
1.4 Amylin as the Monomer of Islet Amyloid
2 Molecular Biology
2.1 Preproamylin
2.2 Structure and Chromosomal Location of the Human Amylin Gene
2.3 A Disease‐Associated Mutation in Human Amylin
3 Biosynthesis and Secretion of Amylin
3.1 Measurement of Amylin Concentrations
3.2 Tissue Localization and Content
3.3 Regulation of Biosynthesis
3.4 Amylin in Extra‐Islet Tissues
3.5 Circulating Concentrations and Pancreatic Secretion
3.6 Effects of Secretion Modulators
3.7 Amylin Secretion in Humans
4 The Amylin Family: Role in the Regulation of Fuel Metabolism
4.1 Insulin Resistance In Vivo
4.2 Actions in Skeletal Muscle
4.3 Role of Calcitonin Gene‐Related Peptide in Skeletal Muscle Metabolism
4.4 Actions in the Liver
4.5 Adipose Tissue
5 Regulation of Pancreatic Function
5.1 Endocrine Pancreas
5.2 Exocrine Pancreas
6 Regulation of The Gastrointestinal Tract
6.1 Effects on Gastric Function
6.2 Intestinal Function
7 Actions in The Central Nervous System: Modulation of Appetite
8 Actions in The Cardiovascular System
8.1 Calcitonin Gene‐Related Peptide
8.2 Adrenomedullin
8.3 Biological Actions of Adrenomedullin in the Cardiovascular System
8.4 Vascular Actions of Amylin
9 Renal Function
9.1 Role of Amylin in the Regulation of Renal Function
9.2 Adrenomedullin: Roles in Renal Function and Sodium Homeostasis
10 Effects on Calcium Metabolism and Bone
10.1 Actions of Amylin
11 Other Biological Actions
11.1 Respiratory System
11.2 Effects in Endocrine Tissues Other than Pancreas
11.3 Effects in the Immune System
12 Receptors for Amylin and Related Proteins
12.1 Receptor Nomenclature
12.2 Pharmacological and Biochemical Studies
12.3 Calcitonin Receptors
12.4 Specific Calcitonin Gene‐Related Peptide Binding Sites that Can Interact with Amylin
12.5 Amylin Binding to Skeletal Muscle and Liver
12.6 Biochemical Characterization of Putative Amylin and Calcitonin Gene‐Related Peptide Receptors
13 Disease Associations
13.1 Insulin‐Dependent Diabetes Mellitus
13.2 Animal Models of Insulin Resistance, Obesity, and Diabetes
13.3 Obesity and Non‐Insulin‐Dependent Diabetes Mellitus in Humans
13.4 Other Diabetic Syndromes
13.5 Amylin in Endocrine Neoplasms
13.6 Relationship to Aging
13.7 Other Diseases
14 Conclusion and Future Prospects
Figure 1. Figure 1.

A: section of pancreas from a 54‐year‐old woman with adult onset diabetes mellitus from which the original description of islet hyaline, subsequently known as amyloid, was made 712, 713. The normally cellular islets have been substantially replaced by amorphous, faintly pink‐staining islet amyloid. This section is retained at the Department of Pathology, the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD. B: section of a single large islet (c. 350 mm in longest diameter) from the pancreas of a human patient with a history of NIDDM, and stained using immunoperoxidase with polyclonal rabbit anti‐human amylin19,37 antiserum (brown) 191. Amylin‐like immunoreactivity is present both in association with endocrine nuclei (grey‐purple; presumably intracytoplasmic, granule associated), and in extracellular, nuclei‐free regions (presumably aggregated as amylin‐containing amyloid (dense, variable brown staining; e.g. top right). Immunoreactivity associated with ducts (e.g. bottom left) could be due either to amylin or to cross‐reactivity with calcitonin gene‐related peptide. C: alkaline Congo red‐stained particles of islet amyloid, isolated from the postmortem pancreas of a human with NIDDM and photographed under polarized light (yellow) 189. Particle diameters were between 5 and 30 mm, and the background material was mainly collagen.

[Reproduced with permission of Robert D. Hoffman, M.D., Ph.D., Department of Biological Chemistry, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD].
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Chromatographic purification of amylin from islet amyloid isolated from the pancreas of a human patient with non‐insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. A: High‐performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) gel filtration, in 6 M guanidine hydrochloride, 0.2 M Na2HPO4‐NaH2PO4 (pH 7.5) on Zorbax GF‐450 and GF‐250 columns in series, of an extract from an amyloid‐containing diabetic pancreas. Amylin was present in the region indicated by the bar. B: Reversed‐phase HPLC of material from the region indicated by the bar in A, with mobile phase of trifluoroacetic acid, 1% (vol/vol)/acetonitrile gradient, 5% to 80% (vol/vol, shown as a dotted line), a solid‐phase Partisil 10 ODS‐3 column, and monitoring at 280 nm. Nonreduced amylin was present in peak 3. The elevation of baseline absorbance was produced by nonproteinaceous material. C: Reversed‐phase HPLC of control, extract as in B. Peaks 1 and 2 in this profile corresponded in elution time and amino acid composition to 1 and 2 in B. D: Repurification using the reversed‐phase system in B of material in peak 3 after reduction and alkylation of cysteine residues performed in 6 M guanidine hydrochloride, 0.2 M Tris (pH 8.0), and 3 mM Na2EDTA by the addition (to 20 mM) of dithiothreitol to approximately 1 nmol of purified amylin, shaking for 3 h, and subsequent addition of iodo[2‐14C]acetic acid (54 Ci/mol, 1 Ci = 37 GBq) for 5 min at 0°C in the dark, followed by freshly neutralized iodoacetic acid to 40 mM. Peaks 4 and 5 had amino acid compositions distinct from that of 3RA, which was reduced and alkylated amylin. Other peaks were either nonproteinaceous solutes or part of the system. E: Separation of product peptides after tryptic digestion of reduced and alkylated amylin by reversed‐phase HPLC in trifluoroacetic acid 0.1% (vol/vol)/acetonitrile gradient as in B, with monitoring at 206 nm. Tryptic cleavage (L‐1‐tosylamido‐2‐phenylethyl chloromethyl ketone‐treated trypsin, EC 3.4.21.4) of purified amylin was done for 3 h at 37°C in 100 mM NH4HCO3 buffer, enzyme:substrate molar ratio = 1:100, with termination of reaction by addition of diisopropylfluoro‐phosphate to 25 mM. Peak 6 was the smaller, more hydrophilic amylin1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 and peak 7 the larger, more hydrophobic amylin(12–37). All radiolabel was present in peak 6. Identities of peaks were confirmed by quantitative amino acid analysis and by protein sequencing. The ratio of peak heights is consistent with the relative lengths of the peptides. Full methods were as in reference 189.

[From Cooper et al. 189 with permission.]
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Structure of human amylin. Residues Cys2 and Cys7 are joined by an intramolecular disulfide bond, and the COOH‐terminal residue is tyrosine amide.
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Sequence comparisons between human amylin and other members of the amylin/CGRP/adrenomedullin grouping of peptides. Percentage sequence identity is between human amylin (100%) and other amylin and calcitonin gene‐related peptide molecules. The intra‐molcecular disulfide bond between Cys2 and Cys7 and the carboxy‐terminal amide group have been directly identified in all members of the family in which they have been sought. Residues different from those in equivalent positions in human amylin are shown in bold type. aSpecies in which islet amyloid may be present in animals having a non‐insulindependent diabetes mellitus‐like syndrome. bThere is evidence that the islet amyloid found in diabetic degus is formed from insulin rather than amylin 358. Residues in the putative amyloid‐forming region, amylin(20–29), are underlined. Residues indicated by u (unknown) have yet to be determined. In this table, CGRP‐1 is equivalent to α‐CGRP and CGRP‐2 to β‐CGRP. CGRP, calcitonin gene‐related peptide; Consensus‐Amy, amylin family consensus sequence; Consensus‐CGRP, CGRP family consensus; Consensus‐AmCG, amylin/CGRP family consensus.
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Cartoon illustrating the solution structure of human amylin based on two‐dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance studies of calcitonin gene‐related peptide with subsequent molecular modeling, which indicated an α‐helix between Val8 and Arg18 and a β‐strand between Ser19 and Pro29 in the latter 104. Basic residues are shown in black, and hydrophobic residues in gray.
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Polymorphism of human amylin fibrillar structures revealed by negative stain electron microscopy. Ribbons of variable width and coiled fibrils with distinct axial crossover repeats of 25 or 50 nm are illustrated. Bar = 100nm.

[From Goldsbury et al. 323 with permission.]
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Lateral (side‐by‐side) association of human amylin protofibrils. a: Single 5 nm protofibril. b‐d: Ribbons assembled by lateral association of two (b), three (c), or five (d) 5 nm protofibrils. The latter often crossed over in a left‐handed sense at moderately regular intervals. e: Lateral assembly of 5 nm protofibrils into single‐layered, sheet‐like arrays. Bar = 100 nm.

[From Goldsbury et al. 323 with permission.]
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Coiled association of human amylin protofibrils. a,b: Fibrils (8 nm) with a left‐handed, 25 nm axial crossover repeat. c,d: Fibrils (13 nm) with a left‐handed, 50 nm axial crossover repeat. e: Two 8 nm fibrils join to form a fibril with an 11 nm diameter. Bar = 100 nm.

[From Goldsbury et al. 323 with permission.]
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Predicted structure of human preproamylin. References are as given in the text. The sequence of human amylin is given in bold type. Suggested processing signals for amylin are boxed. The Gly residue in the carboxy‐terminal Gly‐Lys‐Arg sequence is predicted to generate an amide moiety at the COOH‐terminal tyrosine residue. Arrow indicates the likely end of the signal sequence. Predicted NH2‐ and COOH‐terminal propeptides are underlined. It is not known at present whether the COOH‐terminal propetide is cleaved at positions 80 and 81 to yield the two smaller peptides, b and c, as indicated here.
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Electron micrograph of a pancreatic section from a human patient with non‐insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. Note juxtaposition of amyloid with islet β‐cell surface. Am, amyloid; A, glucagon cell; B, insulin cell; PP, pancreatic polypeptide cell. Bar = 1 μm.

[From Clark et al. 164 with permission.]
Figure 11. Figure 11.

A, B: fluorescence immunohistochemical study of a single section from a normal rat islet stained both for amylin. A: rhodamine‐labeled anti‐amylin (red) and B: fluorescein‐labeled anti‐insulin (green). Most cells are positive for both amylin and insulin, demonstrating amylin in islet β‐cells. C, D: In situ hybridization histochemistry of amylin and insulin messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) in a normal rat islet. Dark field photograph of autoradiographs from a study of the expression of C: amylin and D: insulin in serial sections from the same normal rat islet. Complementary RNA probes were prepared from cloned rat amylin 538 and insulin complementary deoxyribonucleic acid probes.

[Reproduced with permission from K. L. Luskey, M.D., University of Texas Medical Center, Dallas, TX.]
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Glucose and arginine stimulation of amylin and insulin secretion from cultured HIT‐T15 islet β cells. Content of amylin was 12.4 ± 4.6 pmol/106 cells and that of insulin, 12.3 ± 4.6 pmol/106 cells. A: HIT cells were incubated with increasing concentrations of glucose. Mean basal rates of amylin and insulin secretion were 0.12 ± 0.03 and 0.44 ± 0.18 pmol/(106 cells·h−1), respectively. Both hormones were half‐maximally released at about 3 mM glucose. Maximum secretion rates for amylin and insulin were, respectively, 0.30 ± 0.05 and 0.83 ± 0.20 pmol/(106 cells·h−1) and occurred at 10 mM glucose. The mean secreted amylin to insulin ration of 0.41 ± 0.06 did not vary significantly across the glucose concentration range studied. Data are expressed as percent of amylin or insulin release in the absence of glucose. Mean ± SEM of four replicate experiments. B: Arginine‐stimulated amylin and insulin release. HIT cells were incubated with increasing concentrations of arginine. Data are expressed as percent of basal amylin or insulin release in the absence of arginine.

[From Moore and Cooper 627 with permission.]
Figure 13. Figure 13.

In vivo insulin resistance evoked by amylin and (CGRP) in rats. A: Effect of amylin on insulin action in vivo. Representative study in which insulin (13 pmol·kg−1·min−1) was infused for 220 min with amylin (5 nmol·kg−1·min−1) from 70 to 140 min. B: Effect of CGRP on insulin action in vivo. Representative study in which insulin (13 pmol·kg−1·min−1) was infused for 210 min with CGRP‐1 (5 nmol·kg−1·min−1) from 80 to 150 min, demonstrating CGRP‐evoked insulin resistance.

[From Molina et al. 625 with permission.]
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Amylin‐evoked insulin resistance in isolated incubated rat soleus muscle, illustrating the mutual non‐competitive inhibition between the actions of amylin and insulin on glucose incorporation into glycogen in vitro. A: Insulin dose‐response relationships in the presence of different amylin concentrations. Symbols representing means of actual responses are connected to relevant curves. Amylin concentrations in media predicted by quantitative amino acid analysis are shown for each curve. B: Amylin dose‐response relationships in the presence of different insulin concentrations. Means of actual responses are connected to relevant curves. Predicted media insulin concentrations are shown for each curve.

[From Young et al. 971 with permission.]
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Dose‐related effects of rat calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) and isoprenaline on insulin‐stimulated rates of lactate formation and glycogen synthesis in isolated incubated rat soleus muscle. Glucose concentration was 5.5 mM in all experiments. Comparisons of the effects of CGRP (○) and isoprenaline (•) on (A) insulin‐stimulated rates of lactate production and (B) [14C]glycogen accumulation. Values are means of four separate experiments. Rates of lactate secretion and [14C]glycogen accumulation in the absence of isoprenaline or CGRP were 12.0 ± 0.8 and 3.2 ± 0.2 mmol·h−1·g−1, respectively (SEM values, which were on average 7% have been omitted for clarity). °Statistically significant changes from control muscles (Student's t‐test, P < 0.05).

[From Leighton and Cooper 541 with permission.]
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Plasma glucose and lactate concentrations in rats following administration of rat amylin. Arterial glucose (upper graph) and lactate (lower graph) concentrations following a bolus of 75 nmol·kg−1 rat amylin, intravenous with somatostatin preinfusion for 2 h at 3.4 nmol·h−1 (•), intravenous without somatostatin (○), and subcutaneous (□). Broken line shows the control response. Symbols represent means ± SEM (n = 5 to 12).

[From Young et al. 978 with permission.]
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Increased production of amylin in a rodent model of obesity and insulin resistance, the Lister Albany/NIH rat. A: Autoradiographs illustrating ribonuclease protection analysis of amylin and insulin mRNA in the pancreas of Lister Albany/NIH (LA/N‐lean) (lanes 1 to 5) and insulin‐resistant obese (LA/N‐cp) (lanes 6 to 10) rats showing relative evaluations of amylin (7.8 ± 0.7‐fold, mean ± SEM) and insulin (7.4 ± 0.5‐fold) mRNA in obese animals compared with their lean littermates. Bands corresponding to rat amylin mRNA (Am) and rat insulin I mRNA (In) are arrowed. B: Plasma concentrations of amylin (left graph) and insulin (right graph) in the blood of LA/N‐lean and LAshN‐cp rats. Hormone concentrations are expressed in pM; error bars represent SEM.

[From Huang et al. 398 with permission.]
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Amylin and insulin secretion from the pancreata of (A) normal and (B) diabetic rats. Amylin (□) and insulin (○) secretion (pmol·pancreas−1·min−1) in response to a stepped glucose profile (…) during 1 min intervals from the isolated perfused pancreata of (A) control Wistar (n = 4) and (B) diabetic fatty Zucker (n = 4) rats. Methods as described in reference 302. Results are plotted as mean ± SEM of duplicate estimate at each point for each of four rats.

[From Gedulin et al. 302 with permission.]
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Demonstration of amyloid deposits in pancreatic islets of human amylin‐transgenic male mice. Thioflavin S staining of sections of pancreas from A: 16‐month‐old, hyperglycemic human amylin‐transgenic male mouse exhibiting severe amyloid deposition; B: 16‐month‐old, hyperglycemic, nontransgenic male mouse; and C: human with NIDDM. Thioflavin S‐positive staining is present in islet of hyperglcemic transgenic mouse and diabetic human, but not in that of hyperglycemic nontransgenic mouse. Bars = 50 μm.

[Reproduced with permission from C. B. Verchere et al., 904.]
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Scanning electron micrographs illustrating amylin‐mediated apoptosis of RINm5F islet β cells. Islet β cells incubated for 22 h with or without 10 μM human amylin on glass coverslips were fixed with glutaraldehyde (3% in 0.1 M Sorenson's buffer, pH 7.2) for 3 h, washed, and then postfixed for 1 h in 1% OsO4. Following dehydration in increasing concentrations of ethanol, cells were critically dried and mounted onto a G040 pin‐type SEM mount (ϕ = 12 mm). Specimens were coated with gold palladium for 2 min and examined with a Philips SEM 505 model scanning electron microscope. A: Control RINm5F cells cultured in the presence of medium alone. B: Cells cultured for the same time in the presence of 10 μM human amylin. Cells in B are undergoing apoptosis, as demonstrated by the presence of membrane blebbing and formation of apoptotic bodies. Bars = 10 μM.

[From E. L. Saafi and G. J. S. Cooper, unpublished data.]


Figure 1.

A: section of pancreas from a 54‐year‐old woman with adult onset diabetes mellitus from which the original description of islet hyaline, subsequently known as amyloid, was made 712, 713. The normally cellular islets have been substantially replaced by amorphous, faintly pink‐staining islet amyloid. This section is retained at the Department of Pathology, the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD. B: section of a single large islet (c. 350 mm in longest diameter) from the pancreas of a human patient with a history of NIDDM, and stained using immunoperoxidase with polyclonal rabbit anti‐human amylin19,37 antiserum (brown) 191. Amylin‐like immunoreactivity is present both in association with endocrine nuclei (grey‐purple; presumably intracytoplasmic, granule associated), and in extracellular, nuclei‐free regions (presumably aggregated as amylin‐containing amyloid (dense, variable brown staining; e.g. top right). Immunoreactivity associated with ducts (e.g. bottom left) could be due either to amylin or to cross‐reactivity with calcitonin gene‐related peptide. C: alkaline Congo red‐stained particles of islet amyloid, isolated from the postmortem pancreas of a human with NIDDM and photographed under polarized light (yellow) 189. Particle diameters were between 5 and 30 mm, and the background material was mainly collagen.

[Reproduced with permission of Robert D. Hoffman, M.D., Ph.D., Department of Biological Chemistry, The Johns Hopkins University, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD].


Figure 2.

Chromatographic purification of amylin from islet amyloid isolated from the pancreas of a human patient with non‐insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. A: High‐performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC) gel filtration, in 6 M guanidine hydrochloride, 0.2 M Na2HPO4‐NaH2PO4 (pH 7.5) on Zorbax GF‐450 and GF‐250 columns in series, of an extract from an amyloid‐containing diabetic pancreas. Amylin was present in the region indicated by the bar. B: Reversed‐phase HPLC of material from the region indicated by the bar in A, with mobile phase of trifluoroacetic acid, 1% (vol/vol)/acetonitrile gradient, 5% to 80% (vol/vol, shown as a dotted line), a solid‐phase Partisil 10 ODS‐3 column, and monitoring at 280 nm. Nonreduced amylin was present in peak 3. The elevation of baseline absorbance was produced by nonproteinaceous material. C: Reversed‐phase HPLC of control, extract as in B. Peaks 1 and 2 in this profile corresponded in elution time and amino acid composition to 1 and 2 in B. D: Repurification using the reversed‐phase system in B of material in peak 3 after reduction and alkylation of cysteine residues performed in 6 M guanidine hydrochloride, 0.2 M Tris (pH 8.0), and 3 mM Na2EDTA by the addition (to 20 mM) of dithiothreitol to approximately 1 nmol of purified amylin, shaking for 3 h, and subsequent addition of iodo[2‐14C]acetic acid (54 Ci/mol, 1 Ci = 37 GBq) for 5 min at 0°C in the dark, followed by freshly neutralized iodoacetic acid to 40 mM. Peaks 4 and 5 had amino acid compositions distinct from that of 3RA, which was reduced and alkylated amylin. Other peaks were either nonproteinaceous solutes or part of the system. E: Separation of product peptides after tryptic digestion of reduced and alkylated amylin by reversed‐phase HPLC in trifluoroacetic acid 0.1% (vol/vol)/acetonitrile gradient as in B, with monitoring at 206 nm. Tryptic cleavage (L‐1‐tosylamido‐2‐phenylethyl chloromethyl ketone‐treated trypsin, EC 3.4.21.4) of purified amylin was done for 3 h at 37°C in 100 mM NH4HCO3 buffer, enzyme:substrate molar ratio = 1:100, with termination of reaction by addition of diisopropylfluoro‐phosphate to 25 mM. Peak 6 was the smaller, more hydrophilic amylin1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 and peak 7 the larger, more hydrophobic amylin(12–37). All radiolabel was present in peak 6. Identities of peaks were confirmed by quantitative amino acid analysis and by protein sequencing. The ratio of peak heights is consistent with the relative lengths of the peptides. Full methods were as in reference 189.

[From Cooper et al. 189 with permission.]


Figure 3.

Structure of human amylin. Residues Cys2 and Cys7 are joined by an intramolecular disulfide bond, and the COOH‐terminal residue is tyrosine amide.



Figure 4.

Sequence comparisons between human amylin and other members of the amylin/CGRP/adrenomedullin grouping of peptides. Percentage sequence identity is between human amylin (100%) and other amylin and calcitonin gene‐related peptide molecules. The intra‐molcecular disulfide bond between Cys2 and Cys7 and the carboxy‐terminal amide group have been directly identified in all members of the family in which they have been sought. Residues different from those in equivalent positions in human amylin are shown in bold type. aSpecies in which islet amyloid may be present in animals having a non‐insulindependent diabetes mellitus‐like syndrome. bThere is evidence that the islet amyloid found in diabetic degus is formed from insulin rather than amylin 358. Residues in the putative amyloid‐forming region, amylin(20–29), are underlined. Residues indicated by u (unknown) have yet to be determined. In this table, CGRP‐1 is equivalent to α‐CGRP and CGRP‐2 to β‐CGRP. CGRP, calcitonin gene‐related peptide; Consensus‐Amy, amylin family consensus sequence; Consensus‐CGRP, CGRP family consensus; Consensus‐AmCG, amylin/CGRP family consensus.



Figure 5.

Cartoon illustrating the solution structure of human amylin based on two‐dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance studies of calcitonin gene‐related peptide with subsequent molecular modeling, which indicated an α‐helix between Val8 and Arg18 and a β‐strand between Ser19 and Pro29 in the latter 104. Basic residues are shown in black, and hydrophobic residues in gray.



Figure 6.

Polymorphism of human amylin fibrillar structures revealed by negative stain electron microscopy. Ribbons of variable width and coiled fibrils with distinct axial crossover repeats of 25 or 50 nm are illustrated. Bar = 100nm.

[From Goldsbury et al. 323 with permission.]


Figure 7.

Lateral (side‐by‐side) association of human amylin protofibrils. a: Single 5 nm protofibril. b‐d: Ribbons assembled by lateral association of two (b), three (c), or five (d) 5 nm protofibrils. The latter often crossed over in a left‐handed sense at moderately regular intervals. e: Lateral assembly of 5 nm protofibrils into single‐layered, sheet‐like arrays. Bar = 100 nm.

[From Goldsbury et al. 323 with permission.]


Figure 8.

Coiled association of human amylin protofibrils. a,b: Fibrils (8 nm) with a left‐handed, 25 nm axial crossover repeat. c,d: Fibrils (13 nm) with a left‐handed, 50 nm axial crossover repeat. e: Two 8 nm fibrils join to form a fibril with an 11 nm diameter. Bar = 100 nm.

[From Goldsbury et al. 323 with permission.]


Figure 9.

Predicted structure of human preproamylin. References are as given in the text. The sequence of human amylin is given in bold type. Suggested processing signals for amylin are boxed. The Gly residue in the carboxy‐terminal Gly‐Lys‐Arg sequence is predicted to generate an amide moiety at the COOH‐terminal tyrosine residue. Arrow indicates the likely end of the signal sequence. Predicted NH2‐ and COOH‐terminal propeptides are underlined. It is not known at present whether the COOH‐terminal propetide is cleaved at positions 80 and 81 to yield the two smaller peptides, b and c, as indicated here.



Figure 10.

Electron micrograph of a pancreatic section from a human patient with non‐insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. Note juxtaposition of amyloid with islet β‐cell surface. Am, amyloid; A, glucagon cell; B, insulin cell; PP, pancreatic polypeptide cell. Bar = 1 μm.

[From Clark et al. 164 with permission.]


Figure 11.

A, B: fluorescence immunohistochemical study of a single section from a normal rat islet stained both for amylin. A: rhodamine‐labeled anti‐amylin (red) and B: fluorescein‐labeled anti‐insulin (green). Most cells are positive for both amylin and insulin, demonstrating amylin in islet β‐cells. C, D: In situ hybridization histochemistry of amylin and insulin messenger ribonucleic acid (RNA) in a normal rat islet. Dark field photograph of autoradiographs from a study of the expression of C: amylin and D: insulin in serial sections from the same normal rat islet. Complementary RNA probes were prepared from cloned rat amylin 538 and insulin complementary deoxyribonucleic acid probes.

[Reproduced with permission from K. L. Luskey, M.D., University of Texas Medical Center, Dallas, TX.]


Figure 12.

Glucose and arginine stimulation of amylin and insulin secretion from cultured HIT‐T15 islet β cells. Content of amylin was 12.4 ± 4.6 pmol/106 cells and that of insulin, 12.3 ± 4.6 pmol/106 cells. A: HIT cells were incubated with increasing concentrations of glucose. Mean basal rates of amylin and insulin secretion were 0.12 ± 0.03 and 0.44 ± 0.18 pmol/(106 cells·h−1), respectively. Both hormones were half‐maximally released at about 3 mM glucose. Maximum secretion rates for amylin and insulin were, respectively, 0.30 ± 0.05 and 0.83 ± 0.20 pmol/(106 cells·h−1) and occurred at 10 mM glucose. The mean secreted amylin to insulin ration of 0.41 ± 0.06 did not vary significantly across the glucose concentration range studied. Data are expressed as percent of amylin or insulin release in the absence of glucose. Mean ± SEM of four replicate experiments. B: Arginine‐stimulated amylin and insulin release. HIT cells were incubated with increasing concentrations of arginine. Data are expressed as percent of basal amylin or insulin release in the absence of arginine.

[From Moore and Cooper 627 with permission.]


Figure 13.

In vivo insulin resistance evoked by amylin and (CGRP) in rats. A: Effect of amylin on insulin action in vivo. Representative study in which insulin (13 pmol·kg−1·min−1) was infused for 220 min with amylin (5 nmol·kg−1·min−1) from 70 to 140 min. B: Effect of CGRP on insulin action in vivo. Representative study in which insulin (13 pmol·kg−1·min−1) was infused for 210 min with CGRP‐1 (5 nmol·kg−1·min−1) from 80 to 150 min, demonstrating CGRP‐evoked insulin resistance.

[From Molina et al. 625 with permission.]


Figure 14.

Amylin‐evoked insulin resistance in isolated incubated rat soleus muscle, illustrating the mutual non‐competitive inhibition between the actions of amylin and insulin on glucose incorporation into glycogen in vitro. A: Insulin dose‐response relationships in the presence of different amylin concentrations. Symbols representing means of actual responses are connected to relevant curves. Amylin concentrations in media predicted by quantitative amino acid analysis are shown for each curve. B: Amylin dose‐response relationships in the presence of different insulin concentrations. Means of actual responses are connected to relevant curves. Predicted media insulin concentrations are shown for each curve.

[From Young et al. 971 with permission.]


Figure 15.

Dose‐related effects of rat calcitonin gene‐related peptide (CGRP) and isoprenaline on insulin‐stimulated rates of lactate formation and glycogen synthesis in isolated incubated rat soleus muscle. Glucose concentration was 5.5 mM in all experiments. Comparisons of the effects of CGRP (○) and isoprenaline (•) on (A) insulin‐stimulated rates of lactate production and (B) [14C]glycogen accumulation. Values are means of four separate experiments. Rates of lactate secretion and [14C]glycogen accumulation in the absence of isoprenaline or CGRP were 12.0 ± 0.8 and 3.2 ± 0.2 mmol·h−1·g−1, respectively (SEM values, which were on average 7% have been omitted for clarity). °Statistically significant changes from control muscles (Student's t‐test, P < 0.05).

[From Leighton and Cooper 541 with permission.]


Figure 16.

Plasma glucose and lactate concentrations in rats following administration of rat amylin. Arterial glucose (upper graph) and lactate (lower graph) concentrations following a bolus of 75 nmol·kg−1 rat amylin, intravenous with somatostatin preinfusion for 2 h at 3.4 nmol·h−1 (•), intravenous without somatostatin (○), and subcutaneous (□). Broken line shows the control response. Symbols represent means ± SEM (n = 5 to 12).

[From Young et al. 978 with permission.]


Figure 17.

Increased production of amylin in a rodent model of obesity and insulin resistance, the Lister Albany/NIH rat. A: Autoradiographs illustrating ribonuclease protection analysis of amylin and insulin mRNA in the pancreas of Lister Albany/NIH (LA/N‐lean) (lanes 1 to 5) and insulin‐resistant obese (LA/N‐cp) (lanes 6 to 10) rats showing relative evaluations of amylin (7.8 ± 0.7‐fold, mean ± SEM) and insulin (7.4 ± 0.5‐fold) mRNA in obese animals compared with their lean littermates. Bands corresponding to rat amylin mRNA (Am) and rat insulin I mRNA (In) are arrowed. B: Plasma concentrations of amylin (left graph) and insulin (right graph) in the blood of LA/N‐lean and LAshN‐cp rats. Hormone concentrations are expressed in pM; error bars represent SEM.

[From Huang et al. 398 with permission.]


Figure 18.

Amylin and insulin secretion from the pancreata of (A) normal and (B) diabetic rats. Amylin (□) and insulin (○) secretion (pmol·pancreas−1·min−1) in response to a stepped glucose profile (…) during 1 min intervals from the isolated perfused pancreata of (A) control Wistar (n = 4) and (B) diabetic fatty Zucker (n = 4) rats. Methods as described in reference 302. Results are plotted as mean ± SEM of duplicate estimate at each point for each of four rats.

[From Gedulin et al. 302 with permission.]


Figure 19.

Demonstration of amyloid deposits in pancreatic islets of human amylin‐transgenic male mice. Thioflavin S staining of sections of pancreas from A: 16‐month‐old, hyperglycemic human amylin‐transgenic male mouse exhibiting severe amyloid deposition; B: 16‐month‐old, hyperglycemic, nontransgenic male mouse; and C: human with NIDDM. Thioflavin S‐positive staining is present in islet of hyperglcemic transgenic mouse and diabetic human, but not in that of hyperglycemic nontransgenic mouse. Bars = 50 μm.

[Reproduced with permission from C. B. Verchere et al., 904.]


Figure 20.

Scanning electron micrographs illustrating amylin‐mediated apoptosis of RINm5F islet β cells. Islet β cells incubated for 22 h with or without 10 μM human amylin on glass coverslips were fixed with glutaraldehyde (3% in 0.1 M Sorenson's buffer, pH 7.2) for 3 h, washed, and then postfixed for 1 h in 1% OsO4. Following dehydration in increasing concentrations of ethanol, cells were critically dried and mounted onto a G040 pin‐type SEM mount (ϕ = 12 mm). Specimens were coated with gold palladium for 2 min and examined with a Philips SEM 505 model scanning electron microscope. A: Control RINm5F cells cultured in the presence of medium alone. B: Cells cultured for the same time in the presence of 10 μM human amylin. Cells in B are undergoing apoptosis, as demonstrated by the presence of membrane blebbing and formation of apoptotic bodies. Bars = 10 μM.

[From E. L. Saafi and G. J. S. Cooper, unpublished data.]
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Article Title: Amylin and Related Proteins: Physiology and Pathophysiology
 

How to Cite

Garth J. S. Cooper. Amylin and Related Proteins: Physiology and Pathophysiology. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 21: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, The Endocrine Pancreas and Regulation of Metabolism: 303-396. First published in print 2001. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp070210