Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Natriuretic Peptides

Adolfo J. De Bold, Benoit G. Bruneau

10.1002/cphy.cp070310

Source: Supplement 22: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, Endocrine Regulation of Water and Electrolyte Balance

Originally published: 2000

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Historical Perspectives
2 Primary Structure
3 Assay Methods
4 The Endocrine Heart
4.1 Functional Morphology
4.2 Biological Properties of Natriuretic Peptides and Their Receptors
4.3 Natriuretic Peptide Gene Structure
4.4 Mechanical and Neuroendocrine Control of Natriuretic Peptide Gene Expression and Release
4.5 Contribution of Natriuretic Peptides to Cardiovascular Homeostasis
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Electron microscopic section through rat atrial myocardium, showing working atrial cardiocytes (see text), which make up the bulk of atrial muscle. These cells show phenotypic features of muscle cells, including myofibrils (My), as well as those of secretory cells, including storage granules [(G) the specific atrial granules] and a highly developed Golgi complex (GC). The general features of the nuclei (N) and mitochondria (M) are shared with ventricular working cardiocytes. × 6,300.


Figure 1.

Electron microscopic section through rat atrial myocardium, showing working atrial cardiocytes (see text), which make up the bulk of atrial muscle. These cells show phenotypic features of muscle cells, including myofibrils (My), as well as those of secretory cells, including storage granules [(G) the specific atrial granules] and a highly developed Golgi complex (GC). The general features of the nuclei (N) and mitochondria (M) are shared with ventricular working cardiocytes. × 6,300.

References
 1. Aburaya, M., J., Hino, N. Minamino, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Isolation and identification of rat brain natriuretic peptides in cardiac atrium. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 163: 226–232, 1989.
 2. Aburaya, M., N., Minamino, J. Hino, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Distribution and molecular forms of brain natriuretic peptide in the central nervous system, heart and peripheral tissue of rat. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 165: 880–887, 1989.
 3. Aburaya, M., N., Minamino, K. Kangawa, K. Tanaka, and H. Matsuo. Distribution and molecular forms of brain natriuretic peptide in porcine heart and blood. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 165: 872–879, 1989.
 4. Adnot, S., P. E., Chabrier, P. Andrivet, I. Viossat, J. Piquet, C. Brun‐Buisson, Y. Gutkowska, and P. Braquet. Atrial natriuretic peptide concentrations and pulmonary hemodynamics in patients with pulmonary artery hypertension. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 136: 951–956, 1987.
 5. Agnoletti, G., A., Rodella, A. Cornacchiari, A. F. Panzali, P. Harris, and R. Ferrari. Isoproterenol induces release of atrial natriuretic peptide from rat atrium in vitro. Am. J. Physiol. 262 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 31): H285–H292, 1992.
 6. Agnoletti, G., A., Rodella, R. Ferrari, and P. Harris. Release of atrial natriuretic peptide‐like immunoreactive material during stretching of the rat atrium in vitro. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 19: 217–220, 1987.
 7. Almeida, F. A., M., Suzuki, and T. Maack. Atrial natriuretic factor increases hematocrit and decreases plasma volume in nephrectomized rats. Life Sci. 39: 1193–1199, 1986.
 8. Ambler, S. K., and M. F. Leite. Regulation of atrial natriuretic peptide secretion by alpha 1‐adrenergic receptors: the role of different second messenger pathways. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 26: 391–402, 1994.
 9. Anad‐Srivastava, M. B., and G. J. Trachte. Atrial natriuretic factor receptors and signal transduction mechanisms. Pharmacol. Rev. 45: 455–497, 1993.
 10. Anggärd, E. E., R. M. Botting, and J. R. Vane. Endothelins. Blood Vessels 27: 269–281, 1990.
 11. Antunes‐Rodrigues, J., S. M., McCann, L. C. Rogers, and W. K. Samson. Atrial natriuretic factor inhibits dehydration‐ and angiotensin II‐induced water intake in the conscious, unrestrained rat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 82: 8720–8723, 1985.
 12. Aparicio, J. G., and M. L. Applebury. The bovine photoreceptor outer segment guanylate cyclase: purification, kinetic properties, and molecular size. Protein Expr. Purif. 6: 501–511, 1995.
 13. Appel, R. G., J., Wang, M. S. Simonson, and M. J. Dunn. A mechanism by which atrial natriuretic factor mediates its glomerular actions. Am. J. Physiol. 251 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 20): F1036–F1042, 1986.
 14. Arai, H., K., Nakao, Y. Saito, et al, Simultaneous measurement of atrial natriuretic polypeptide (ANP) messenger RNA and ANP in rat heart—evidence for a preferentially increased synthesis and secretion of ANP in left atrium of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 148: 239–245, 1987.
 15. Arai, H., K., Nakao, Y. Saito, et al, Augmented expression of atrial natriuretic polypeptide gene in ventricles of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and SHR‐stroke prone. Circ. Res. 62: 926–930, 1988.
 16. Arbustini, E., A., Pucci, M. Grasso, et al, Expression of natriuretic peptide in ventricular myocardium of failing human hearts and its correlation with the severity of clinical and hemodynamic impairment. Am. J. Cardiol. 66: 973–980, 1990.
 17. Arceci, R. J., A. A., King, M. C. Simon, S. H. Orkin, and D. B. Wilson. Mouse GATA‐4: a retinoic acid‐inducible GATA‐binding transcription factor expressed in endodermally derived tissues and heart. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13: 2235–2246, 1993.
 18. Ardati, A., and M. Nemer. A nuclear pathway for alpha 1‐adrenergic receptor signaling in cardiac cells. EMBO J. 12: 5131–5139, 1993.
 19. Argentin, S., A., Ardati, S. Tremblay, I. Lihrmann, L. Robitaille, J. Drouin, and M. Nemer. Developmental stage‐specific regulation of atrial natriuretic factor gene transcription in cardiac cells. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14: 777–790, 1994.
 20. Argentin, S., M., Nemer, J. Drouin, G. K. Scott, B. P. Kennedy, and P. L. Davies. The gene for rat atrial natriuretic factor. J. Biol. Chem. 260: 4568–4571, 1985.
 21. Argentin, S., Y., Sun, I. Lihrmann, T. Schmidt, J. Drouin, and M. Nemer. Distal cis‐acting promoter sequences mediate glucocorticoid stimulation of cardiac atrial natriuretic factor gene transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 23315–23322, 1991.
 22. Arvan, P., and J. D. Castle. Phasic release of newly synthesized secretory proteins in the unstimulated exocrine pancreas. J. Cell Biol. 104: 243–252, 1987.
 23. Arvan, P., R., Kuliawat, D. Prabakaran, A. M. Zavacki, D. Elahi, S. Wang, and D. Pilkey. Protein discharge from immature secretory granules displays both regulated and constitutive characteristics. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 14171–14174, 1991.
 24. Atarashi, K., P. J., Mulrow, and R. Franco‐Saenz. Effect of atrial peptides on aldosterone production. J. Clin. Invest. 76: 1807–1811, 1985.
 25. Atarashi, K., P. J., Mulrow, R. Franco‐Saenz, R. M. Snajdar, and J. Rapp. Inhibition of aldosterone production by an atrial extract. Science 224: 992–994, 1984.
 26. Atlas, S. A., H. D., Kleinert, M. J. Camargo, A. Januszewicz, J. E. Sealey, J. H. Laragh, J. W. Schilling, J. A. Lewicki, L. K. Johnson, and T. Maack. Purification, sequencing and synthesis of natriuretic and vasoactive rat atrial peptide. Nature 309: 717–719, 1984.
 27. Barrett, P. Q., C. M., Isales, W. B. Bollag, and R. T. McCarthy. Ca2+ channels and aldosterone secretion: modulation by K+ and atrial natriuretic peptide. Am. J. Physiol. 261 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 30): F706–F719, 1991.
 28. Barrett, P. Q., C. M., Isales, W. B. Bollag, and R. T. McCarthy. Modulation of Ca2+ channels by atrial natriuretic peptide in the bovine adrenal glomerulosa cell. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 69: 1553–1560, 1991.
 29. Baux, G., and G. Nicaise. Les granules du myocarde comme site possible d'accumulation de cations. J. Microscopie 11: 27–28, 1971.
 30. Bilder, G. E., T. L., Schofield, and E. H. Blaine. Release of atrial natriuretic factor. Effects of repetitive stretch and temperature. Am. J. Physiol. 251 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 20): F817–F821, 1986.
 31. Blackburn, R. E., W. K., Samson, R. J. Fulton, E. M. Stricker, and J. G. Verbalis. Central oxytocin and ANP receptors mediate osmotic inhibition of salt appetite in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 269 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 38): R245–R251, 1995.
 32. Bloch, K. D., S. W., Jones, G. Preibisch, G. Seipke, C. E. Seidman, and J. G. Seidman. Proatrial natriuretic factor is phosphorylated by rat cardiocytes in culture. J. Biol. Chem. 262: 9956–9961, 1987.
 33. Bloch, K. D., N., Zamir, D. Lichtstein, C. E. Seidman, and J. G. Seidman. Ouabain induces secretion of proatrial natriuretic factor by rat atrial cardiocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 255 (Endocrinol. Metab. 18): E383–E387, 1988.
 34. Bolli, P., F. B., Müller, L. Linder, A. E. Raine, T. J. Resink, P. Erne, W. Kiowski, R. Ritz, and F. R. Bühler. The vasodilator potency of atrial natriuretic peptide in man. Circulation 75: 221–228, 1987.
 35. Bompiani, G. D., C., Roulher, and P. Y. Hatt. Le tissu de conduction du coeur chez le rat. Etude au microscope electronique. I. Le tronc commun du farsceau dettis et les cellules clairs de l'ouellette droite. Arch. Mal. Coeur. 52: 1257–1274, 1959.
 36. Brandsch, M., S., Ramamoorthy, N. Marczin, J. D. Catravas, J. W. Leibach, V. Ganapathy, and F. H. Leibach. Regulation of taurine transport by Escherichia coli heat‐stable enterotoxin and guanylin in human intestinal cell lines. J. Clin. Invest. 96: 361–369, 1995.
 37. Breuhaus, B. A., H. H., Saneii, M. A. Brandt, and J. E. Chimoskey. Atriopeptin II lowers cardiac output in conscious sheep. Am. J. Physiol. 249 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol.: R776–R780, 1985.
 38. Bricker, N. S., S., Klahr, M. Purkerson, R. G. Schultze, L. V. Avioli, and S. J. Birge. In vitro assay for a humoral substance present during volume expansion and uremia. Nature 219: 1058–1059, 1968.
 39. Briggs, J. P., B., Steipe, G. Schubert, and J. Schnermann. Micropuncture studies of the renal effects of atrial natriuretic substance. Pflugers Arch. 395: 271–276, 1982.
 40. Brown, L. A., D. J. R., Nunez, and M. R. Wilkins. Differential regulation of natriuretic peptide receptor messenger RNAs during the development of cardiac hypertrophy in the rat. J. Clin. Invest. 92: 2702–2712, 1993.
 41. Bruneau, B. G., and A. J. de Bold. Selective changes in natriuretic peptide and early response gene expression in isolated rat atria following stimulation by stretch or endothelin‐1. Cardiovasc. Res. 28: 1519–1525, 1994.
 42. Bruneau, B. G., L. A. Piazza, and A. J. de Bold. α1‐Adrenergic stimulation of isolated rat atria results in discoordinate increases in natriuretic peptide secretion and gene expression, and enhances Egr‐1 and c‐myc expression. Endocrinology 137: 137–143, 1996.
 43. Bryan, W. M.. Design of minimum active fragments of biologically active peptides. Methods Enzymol. 202: 436–448, 1991.
 44. Burgess, T. L., and R. B. Kelly. Constitutive and regulated secretion. Annu. Rev. Cell. Biol. 3: 243–293, 1987.
 45. Burnett, J. C., Jr., J. P. Granger, and T. J. Opgenorth. Effects of synthetic atrial natriuretic factor on renal function and renin release. Am. J. Physiol. 247 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 16): F863–F866, 1984.
 46. Burrell, L. M., H. J., Lambert, and P. H. Baylis. Effect of atrial natriuretic peptide on thirst and arginine vasopressin release in humans. Am. J. Physiol. 260 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 29): R475–R479, 1991.
 47. Butlen, D., M. H., Mistaoui, and F. Morel. Atrial natriuretic peptide receptors along the rat and rabbit nephrons: [125I] alpha‐rat atrial natriuretic peptide binding in microdissected glomeruli and tubules. Pflugers Arch. 408: 356–365, 1987.
 48. Camargo, M. J. F., H. D., Kleinert, S. A. Atlas, J. E. Sealey, J. H. Laragh, and T. Maack. Ca‐dependent hemodynamic and natriuretic effects of atrial extract in isolated rat kidney. Am. J. Physiol. 246: F447–F456, 1984.
 49. Cantin, M., M., Timm‐Kennedy, E. El‐Khatib, M. Huet, and L. Yunge. Ultrastructural cytochemistry of atrial muscle cells. Anat. Rec. 193: 55–70, 1979.
 50. Cao, L., and D. G. Gardner. Natriuretic peptides inhibit DNA synthesis in cardiac fibroblasts. Hypertension 25: 227–234, 1995.
 51. Cao, L., J., Wu, and D. G. Gardner. Atrial natriuretic peptide suppresses the transcription of its guanylyl cyclase‐linked receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 24891–24897, 1995.
 52. Cetin, Y., M., Kuhn, H. Kulaksiz, K. Adermann, G. Bargsten, D. Grube, and W. G. Forssmann. Enterochromaffin cells of the digestive system: cellular source of guanylin, a guanylate cyclase‐activating peptide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 91: 2935–2939, 1994.
 53. Cetin, Y., H., Kulaksiz, P. Redecker, G. Bargsten, K. Adermann, D. Grube, and W. G. Forssmann. Bronchiolar nonciliated secretory (Clara) cells: source of guanylin in the mammalian lung. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92: 5925–5929, 1995.
 54. Challice, C. E.. Studies on the microstructure of the heart I. The sino‐atrial node and sino‐atrial ring bundle. J. R. Microsc. Soc. 85: 1–21, 1965.
 55. Chang, M. S., D. G., Lowe, M. Lewis, R. Hellmiss, E. Chen, and D. V. Goeddel. Differential activation by atrial and brain natriuretic peptides of two different receptor guanylate cyclases. Nature 341: 68–72, 1989.
 56. Chang, W. W. L., and S. A. Bencosme. Quantitative electron microscopic analysis of the specific granule population of rat atrium. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 47: 483–485, 1969.
 57. Chapeau, C., J., Gutkowska, P. W. Schiller, R. W. Milne, G. Thibault, J. Genest, and M. Cantin. Localization of immunoreactive synthetic atrial natriuretic factor (ANF) in the heart of various animal species. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 33: 541–550, 1985.
 58. Chen, T. T., R. D., Kineman, J. G. Betts, J. B. Hill, and L. S. Frawley. Relative importance of newly synthesized and stored hormone to basal secretion by growth hormone and prolactin cells. Endocrinology 125: 1904–1909, 1989.
 59. Chinkers, M., and D. L. Garbers. The protein kinase domain of the ANP receptor is required for signaling. Science 245: 1392–1394, 1989.
 60. Chinkers, M., D. L., Garbers, M. S. Chang, D. G. Lowe, H. M. Chin, D. V. Goeddel, and S. Schulz. A membrane form of guanylate cyclase is an atrial natriuretic peptide receptor. Nature 338: 78–83, 1989.
 61. Christensen, G., A., Ilebekk, I. Aakeson, and F. Kiil. The release mechanism for atrial natriuretic factor during blood volume expansion and tachycardia in dogs. Acta Physiol. Scand. 134: 263–270, 1988.
 62. Cody, R. J., S. A., Atlas, J. H. Laragh, S. H. Kubo, A. B. Covit, K. S. Ryman, A. Shaknovich, K. Pondolfino, M. Clark, M. J. Camargo, R. M. Scarborough, and J. A. Lewicki. Atrial natriuretic factor in normal subjects and heart failure patients. Plasma levels and renal, hormonal, and hemodynamic responses to peptide infusion. J. Clin. Invest. 78: 1362–1374, 1986.
 63. Cogan, M. G.. Atrial natriuretic factor ameliorates chronic metabolic alkalosis by increasing glomerular filtration. Science 229: 1405–1407, 1985.
 64. Cohen, M. B., D. P., Witte, J. A. Hawkins, and M. G. Currie. Immunohistochemical localization of guanylin in the rat small intestine and colon. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 209: 803–808, 1995.
 65. Conaway, R. C., and J. W. Conaway. General initiation factors for RNA polymerase II. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 62: 161–190, 1993.
 66. Currie, M. G., K. F., Fok, J. Kato, R. J. Moore, F. K. Hamra, K. L. Duffin, and C. E. Smith. Guanylin: an endogenous activator of intestinal guanylate cyclase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89: 947–951, 1992.
 67. Currie, M. G., D. M., Geller, J. Chao, H. S. Margolius, and P. Needleman. Kallikrein activation of a high molecular weight atrial peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 120: 461–466, 1984.
 68. Currie, M. G., D. M., Geller, B. R. Cole, J. G. Boylan, W. YuSheng, S. W. Holmberg, and P. Needleman. Bioactive cardiac substances: potent vasorelaxant activity in mammalian atria. Science 221: 71–73, 1983.
 69. Currie, M. G., D. M., Geller, B. R. Cole, N. R. Siegel, K. F. Fok, S. P. Adams, S. R. Eubanks, G. R. Galluppi, and P. Needleman. Purification and sequence analysis of bioactive atrial peptides (atriopeptins). Science 223: 67–69, 1984.
 70. Cuthbert, A. W., M. E., Hickman, L. J. MacVinish, M. J. Evans, W. H. Colledge, R. Ratcliff, P. W. Seale, and P. P. Humphrey. Chloride secretion in response to guanylin in colonic epithelial from normal and transgenic cystic fibrosis mice. Br. J. Pharmacol. 112: 31–36, 1994.
 71. Dagnino, L., J., Drouin, and M. Nemer. Differential expression of natriuretic peptide genes in cardiac and extracardiac tissues. Mol. Endocrinol. 5: 1292–1300, 1991.
 72. Dagnino, L., J. P., Lavigne, and M. Nemer. Increased transcripts for B‐type natriuretic peptide in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction for atrial and brain natriuretic peptide transcripts. Hypertension 20: 690–700, 1992.
 73. Dananberg, J., and R. J. Grekin. Corticoid regulation of atrial natriuretic factor secretion and gene expression. Am. J. Physiol. 263 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 32): H1377–H1381, 1992.
 74. Day, M. L., D., Schwartz, R. C. Wiegand, P. T. Stockman, S. R. Brunnert, H. E. Tolunay, M. G. Currie, D. G. Standaert, and P. Needleman. Ventricular atriopeptin. Unmasking of messenger RNA and peptide synthesis by hypertrophy or dexamethasone. Hypertension 9: 485–491, 1987.
 75. de Bold, A. J.. Heart atria granularity effects of changes in water‐electrolyte balance. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 161: 508–511, 1979.
 76. de Bold, A. J.. Atrial natriuretic factor of the rat heart. Studies on isolation and properties. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 170: 133–138, 1982.
 77. de Bold, A. J.. Tissue fractionation studies on the relationship between an atrial natriuretic factor and specific atrial granules. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 60: 324–330, 1982.
 78. de Bold, A. J.. Atrial natriuretic factor: a hormone produced by the heart. Science 230: 767–770, 1985.
 79. de Bold, A. J., and S. A. Bencosme. Studies on the relationship between the catecholamine distribution in the atrium and the specific granules present in atrial muscle cells: 1. Isolation of a purified specific granule subfraction. Cardiovasc. Res. 7: 351–363, 1973.
 80. de Bold, A. J., and S. A. Bencosme. Studies on the relationship between the catecholamine distribution in the atrium and the specific granules present in atrial muscle cells: 2. Studies on the sedimentation pattern of atrial noradrenaline and adrenaline. Cardiovasc. Res. 7: 364–369, 1973.
 81. de Bold, A. J., and S. A. Bencosme, Autoradiographic analysis of label distribution in mammalian atrial and ventricular cardiocytes after exposure to tritiated leucine. In: Recent Advances in Studies on Cardiac Structure and Metabolism. The Cardiac Sarcoplasm, edited by P. Roy and P. Harris. Baltimore: University Park, 1975, p. 129–138.
 82. de Bold, A. J., H. B. Borenstein, A. T. Veress, and H. Sonnenberg. A rapid and potent natriuretic response to intravenous injection of atrial myocardial extracts in rats. Life Sci. 28: 89–94, 1981.
 83. de Bold, A. J., B. G. Bruneau, and M. L. Kuroski‐de Bold. Mechanical and neuroendocrine regulation of the endocrine heart. Cardiovasc. Res. 31: 7–18, 1996.
 84. de Bold, A. J., M. L. de Bold, and I. R. Sarda. Functional–morphological studies on in vitro cardionatrin release. J. Hypertens. Suppl. 4: S3–S7, 1986.
 85. de Bold, A. J., and T. G. Flynn. Cardionatrin I—a novel heart peptide with potent diuretic and natriuretic properties. Life Sci. 33: 297–302, 1983.
 86. de Bold, A. J., M. L. Kuroski‐de Bold, P. H. Boer, G. Dubé, H. Mangat, and F. Johnson. A decade of ANF research. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 69: 1480–1485, 1991.
 87. de Bold, A. J., J. J. Raymond, and S. A. Bencosme. Atrial specific granules of the rat heart: light microscopic staining and histochemical reactions. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 26: 1094–1102, 1978.
 88. de Bold, M. L., and A. J. de Bold, Immunocytochemical demonstration of cardionatrins in human atrial myocardium. In: Immunocytochemistry in Tumor Diagnosis, edited by J. Russo. Boston: Martinus Nijhoss, 1985, p. 203–207.
 89. De Jonge, H. W., H. A. A. Van Heugten, and J. M. J. Lamers. Signal transduction by the phosphatidylinositol cycle in myocardium. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 27: 93–106, 1995.
 90. De Lean, A., K. Racz, J. Gutkowska, T. T. Nguyen, M. Cantin, and J. Genest. Specific receptor‐mediated inhibition by synthetic atrial natriuretic factor of hormone‐stimulated steroidogenesis in cultured bovine adrenal cells. Endocrinology 115: 1636–1638, 1984.
 91. Deshmane, S. P., S. L., Carrithers, S. J. Parkinson, S. S. Crupper, D. C. Robertson, and S. A. Waldman. Rat guanylyl cyclase C expressed in COS‐7 cells exhibits multiple affinities for Escherichia coli heat‐stable enterotoxin. Biochemistry 34: 9095–9102, 1995.
 92. De Young, M. B., J. C. Keller, R. M. Graham, and G. M. Wildey. Brefeldin A defines distinct pathways for atrial natriuretic factor secretion in neonatal rat atrial and ventricular myocytes. Circ. Res. 74: 33–40, 1994.
 93. Dickstein, K., A. I., Larsen, V. Bonarjee, M. Thoresen, T. Aarsland, and C. Hall. Plasma proatrial natriuretic factor is predictive of clinical status in patients with congestive heart failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 76: 679–683, 1995.
 94. Dillingham, M. A., and R. J. Anderson. Inhibition of vasopressin action by atrial natriuretic factor. Science 231: 1572–1573, 1986.
 95. Ding, J., G., Thibault, J. Gutkowska, R. Garcia, T. Karabatsos, G. Jasmin, J. Genest, and M. Cantin. Cardiac and plasma atrial natriuretic factor in experimental congestive heart failure. Endocrinology 121: 248–257, 1987.
 96. Donckier, J., C., Hanet, L. Galanti, L. Stoleru, H. Van Mechelen, A. Robert, J. M. Ketelslegers, and H. Pouleur. Low‐dose endothelin‐1 potentiates volume‐induced secretion of atrial natriuretic factor. Am. J. Physiol. 263 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 32): H939–H944, 1992.
 97. Doubell, A. F., and G. Thibault. Calcium is involved in both positive and negative modulation of the secretory system for ANP. Am. J. Physiol. 266 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 35): H1854–H1863, 1994.
 98. Drewett, J. G., and D. L. Garbers. The family of guanylyl cyclase receptors and their ligands. Endocr. Rev. 15: 135–162, 1994.
 99. Drewett, J. G., R. J., Ziegler, and G. J. Trachte. Neuromodulatory effects of atrial natriuretic peptides correlate with an inhibition of adenylate cyclase but not an activation of guanylate cyclase. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 260: 689–696, 1992.
 100. Drexler, H., J., Hanze, M. Finckh, W. Lu, H. Just, and R. E. Lang. Atrial natriuretic peptide in a rat model of cardiac failure. Atrial and ventricular mRNA, atrial content, plasma levels, and effect of volume loading. Circulation 79: 620–633, 1989.
 101. Dubé, G., M. L. Kuroski‐de Bold, and A. J. de Bold. Post‐translational processing of atrial natriuretic factor by adult rat atrial cardiocytes in culture. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 71: 497–505, 1993.
 102. Dunn, B. R., I., Ichikawa, J. M. Pfeffer, J. L. Troy, and B. M. Brenner. Renal and systemic hemodynamic effects of synthetic atrial natriuretic peptide in the anesthetized rat. Circ. Res. 59: 237–246, 1986.
 103. Durocher, D., C., Chen, A. Ardati, R. J. Schwartz, and M. Nemer. The atrial natriuretic factor promoter is a downstream target for Nkx‐2.5 in the myocardium. Mol. Cell. Biol. 16: 4648–4655, 1996.
 104. Dzau, V. J., J. D., Baxter, M. Cantin, A. J. de Bold, D. Ganten, K. Gross, A. Husain, T. Inagami, J. Menard, S. Poole, J. I. S. Robertson, J. Tang, and K. Yamamoto. Nomenclature for atrial peptides. N. Engl. J. Med. 316: 1278–1279, 1987.
 105. Edwards, B. S., T. R., Schwab, R. S. Zimmerman, D. M. Heublein, N. Jiang, and J. C. Burnett, Jr.. Cardiovascular, renal, and endocrine response to atrial natriuretic peptide in angiotensin II mediated hypertension. Circ. Res. 59: 663–667, 1986.
 106. Edwards, B. S., R. S., Zimmerman, T. R. Schwab, D. M. Heublein, and J. C. Burnett, Jr.. Atrial stretch, not pressure, is the principal determinant controlling the acute release of atrial natriuretic factor. Circ. Res. 62: 191–195, 1988.
 107. Engel, J. D., H., Beug, J. H. LaVail, et al, cis and trans regulation of tissue‐specific transcription. J. Cell Sci. 16: 21–31, 1992.
 108. Fan, X., F. K., Hamra, R. H. Freeman, S. L. Eber, W. J. Krause, R. W. Lim, V. M. Pace, M. G. Currie, and L. R. Forte. Uroguanylin: cloning of preprouroguanylin cDNA, mRNA expression in the intestine and heart and isolation of uroguanylin and prouroguanylin from plasma. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 219: 457–462, 1996.
 109. Fenoy, F. J., T., Quesada, M. Garcia‐Salom, J. C. Romero, and F. J. Salazar. Hemodynamic effects of chronic infusion of rANP in renal hypertensive rats. Am. J. Physiol. 256 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 25): H1393–H1398, 1989.
 110. Field, L. J.. Atrial natriuretic factor‐SV40 T antigen transgenes produce tumors and cardiac arrhythmias in mice. Science 239: 1029–1033, 1988.
 111. Fioretto, P., M., Sambataro, M. R. Cipollina, et al, Role of atrial natriuretic peptide in the pathogenesis of sodium retention in IDDM with and without glomerular hyperfiltration. Diabetes 41: 936–945, 1992.
 112. Fischer, T. A., M., Haass, R. Dietz, R. C. Willenbrock, W. Saggau, R. E. Lang, and W. Kubler. Transcription, storage and release of atrial natriuretic factor in the failing human heart. Clin. Sci. (Colch.) 80: 285–291, 1991.
 113. Flückiger, J. P., B., Waeber, G. Matsueda, B. Delaloye, J. Nussberger, and H. R. Brunner. Effect of atriopeptin III on hematocrit and volemia of nephrectomized rats. Am. J. Physiol. 251 (Heart Circ. Physiol: H880–H883, 1986.
 114. Flynn, T. G., A., Brar, L. Tremblay, I. Sarda, C. Lyons, and D. B. Jennings. Isolation and characterization of iso‐rANP, a new natriuretic peptide from rat atria [published erratum appears in Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 163: 1189, 1989]. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 161: 830–837, 1989.
 115. Flynn, T. G., P. L., Davies, B. P. Kennedy, M. L. de Bold, and A. J. de Bold. Alignment of rat cardionatrin sequences with the preprocardionatrin sequence from complementary DNA. Science 228: 323–325, 1985.
 116. Flynn, T. G., A. J. de Bold, M. L. de Bold, P. L. Davies, and B. P. Kennedy. Main forms of immunoreactive cardionatrin in atrial extracts and in atrial specific granules. Biochem. Soc. Trans. 13: 1141, 1985.
 117. Flynn, T. G., M. L. de Bold, and A. J. de Bold. The amino acid sequence of an atrial peptide with potent diuretic and natriuretic properties. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 117: 859–865, 1983.
 118. Focaccio, A., M., Volpe, G. Ambrosio, G. Lembo, S. Pannain, S. Rubattu, I. Enea, S. Pignalosa, and M. Chiariello. Angiotensin II directly stimulates release of atrial natriuretic factor in isolated rabbit hearts. Circulation 87: 192–198, 1993.
 119. Foresta, C., R., Mioni, G. Scanelli, R. Vettor, B. Busnardo, and C. Scandellari. Alpha human atrial natriuretic peptide and anterior pituitary hormones secretion in men. Horm. Metab. Res. 20: 313–315, 1988.
 120. Forssmann, W. G., D., Hock, F. Lottspeich, A. Henschen, V. Kreye, M. Christmann, M. Reinecke, J. Metz, M. Carlquist, and V. Mutt. The right auricle of the heart is an endocrine organ. Cardiodilatin as a peptide hormone candidate. Anat. Embryol. 168: 307–313, 1983.
 121. Franci, C. R., J. A., Anselmo‐Franci, and S. M. McCann. The role of endogenous atrial natriuretic peptide in resting and stress‐induced release of corticotropin, prolactin, growth hormone, and thyroid‐stimulating hormone. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89: 11391–11395, 1992.
 122. Fujioka, S., T., Tamaki, K. Fukui, T. Okahara, and Y. Abe. Effects of a synthetic human atrial natriuretic polypeptide on regional blood flow in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 109: 301–304, 1985.
 123. Fukuda, Y., Y., Hirata, S. Taketani, T. Kojima, S. Oikawa, H. Nakazato, and Y. Kobayashi. Endothelin stimulates accumulations of cellular atrial natriuretic peptide and its messenger RNA in rat cardiocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 164: 1431–1436, 1989.
 124. Fukuda, Y., Y., Hirata, H. Yoshimi, T. Kojima, Y. Kobayashi, M. Yanagisawa, and T. Masaki. Endothelin is a potent secretagogue for atrial natriuretic peptide in cultured rat atrial myocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 155: 167–172, 1988.
 125. Fukui, K., H., Iwao, A. Nakamura, A. Yamamoto, T. Tamaki, T. Shoji, S. Kimura, Y. Aki, K. Hasui, H. Ohkubo, S. Nakanishi, and Y. Abe. Captopril and hydralazine suppress atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) gene expression in the ventricles of spontaneously hypertensive rat. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 160: 310–316, 1989.
 126. Fuller, F., J. G., Porter, A. E. Arfsten, J. Miller, J. W. Schilling, R. M. Scarborough, J. A. Lewicki, and D. B. Schenk. Atrial natriuretic peptide clearance receptor. Complete sequence and functional expression of cDNA clones. J. Biol. Chem. 263: 9395–9401, 1988.
 127. Fyhrquist, F., M. L., Sirvio, K. Helin, O. Saijonmaa, K. Metsarinne, I. Paakkari, A. Jarvinen, and I. Tikkanen. Endothelin antiserum decreases volume‐stimulated and basal plasma concentration of atrial natriuretic peptide. Circulation 88: 1172–1176, 1993.
 128. Garcia, R., M., Cantin, G. Thibault, H. Ong, and J. Genest. Relationship of specific granules to the natriuretic and diuretic activity of rat atria. Experientia 38: 1071–1073, 1982.
 129. Garcia, R., G., Thibault, J. Gutkowska, P. Hamet, M. Cantin, and J. Genest. Effect of chronic infusion of synthetic atrial natriuretic factor (ANF 8–33) in conscious two‐kidney, one‐clip hypertensive rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 178: 155–159, 1985.
 130. Garcia, R., G., Thibault, R. F. Nutt, M. Cantin, and J. Genest. Comparative vasoactive effects of native and synthetic atrial natriuretic factor (ANF). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 119: 685–688, 1984.
 131. Gardner, D. G.. Transgenic animals in hypertension research. New approaches to old questions [comment]. Hypertension 16: 308–310, 1990.
 132. Gardner, D. G., C. F., Deschepper, and J. D. Baxter. The gene for the atrial natriuretic factor is expressed in the aortic arch. Hypertension 9: 103–106, 1987.
 133. Gardner, D. G., C. F., Deschepper, W. F. Ganong, S. Hane, J. Fiddes, J. D. Baxter, and J. Lewicki. Extra‐atrial expression of the gene for atrial natriuretic factor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83: 6697–6701, 1986.
 134. Gardner, D. G., B. J., Gertz, C. F. Deschepper, and D. Y. Kim. Gene for the rat atrial natriuretic peptide is regulated by glucocorticoids in vitro. J. Clin. Invest. 82: 1275–1281, 1988.
 135. Gardner, D. G., B. J., Gertz, and S. Hane. Thyroid hormone increases rat atrial natriuretic peptide messenger ribonucleic acid accumulation in vivo and in vitro. Mol. Endocrinol. 1: 260–265, 1987.
 136. Gardner, D. G., S., Hane, D. Trachewsky, D. Schenk, and J. D. Baxter. Atrial natriuretic peptide mRNA is regulated by glucocorticoids in vivo. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 139: 1047–1054, 1986.
 137. Gardner, D. G., E. D., Newman, K. K. Nakamura, and K. P. Nguyen. Endothelin increases the synthesis and secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide in neonatal rat cardiocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 261 (Endocrinol. Metab. 24): E177–E182, 1991.
 138. Gardner, D. G., and H. D. Schultz. Prostaglandins regulate the synthesis and secretion of the atrial natriuretic peptide. J. Clin. Invest. 86: 52–59, 1990.
 139. Gardner, D. G., G. P., Vlasuk, J. D. Baxter, J. C. Fiddes, and J. A. Lewicki. Identification of atrial natriuretic factor gene transcripts in the central nervous system of the rat. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84: 2175–2179, 1987.
 140. Gardner, D. G., H., Wirtz, and L. G. Dobbs. Stretch‐dependent regulation of atrial peptide synthesis and secretion in cultured atrial cardiocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 263 (Endocrinol. Metab. 26): E239–E244, 1992.
 141. Gauer, O. H., J. P., Henry, and H. O. Seiker. Cardiac receptors and fluid volume control. Prog. Cardiovasc. Dis. 4: 1–26, 1961.
 142. Geller, D. M., M. G., Currie, N. R. Siegel, K. F. Fok, S. P. Adams, and P. Needleman. The sequence of an atriopeptigen: a precursor of the bioactive atrial peptides. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 121: 802–807, 1984.
 143. Gibbs, D. M.. Beta‐adrenergic control of atrial natriuretic factor secretion from dispersed rat atrial myocytes. Regul. Pept. 19: 73–78, 1987.
 144. Gilkes, A. F., K. B., MacKay, G. Cramb, and S. B. Guild. Atrial natriuretic peptide effects in AtT‐20 pituitary tumour cells. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 89: 39–45, 1992.
 145. Glembotski, C. C., C. E., Irons, K. A. Krown, S. F. Murray, A. B. Sprenkle, and C. A. Sei. Myocardial alpha‐thrombin receptor activation induces hypertrophy and increases atrial natriuretic factor gene expression. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 20646–20652, 1993.
 146. Golomb, E., E., Friedman, Z. A. Abassi, D. Trachewsky, and H. R. Keiser. Rare renal transcription of the atrial natriuretic factor gene in rats: demonstration by polymerase chain reaction. Am. J. Hypertens. 6: 867–872, 1993.
 147. Granger, J. P., T. J., Opgenorth, J. Salazar, J. C. Romero, and J. C. Burnett, Jr.. Long‐term hypotensive and renal effects of atrial natriuretic peptide. Hypertension 8: II112–II116, 1986.
 148. Greenberg, B. D., G. H., Bencen, J. J. Seilhamer, J. A. Lewicki, and J. C. Fiddes. Nucleotide sequence of the gene encoding human atrial natriuretic factor precursor. Nature 312: 656–658, 1984.
 149. Greenwald, J. E., D., Ritter, E. Tetens, and P. S. Rotwein. Renal expression of the gene for atrial natriuretic factor. Am. J. Physiol. 263 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 32): F974–F978, 1992.
 150. Grépin, C., L., Dagnino, L. Robitaille, L. Haberstroh, T. Antakly, and M. Nemer. A hormone‐encoding gene identifies a pathway for cardiac but not skeletal muscle gene transcription. Mol. Cell. Biol. 14: 3115–3129, 1994.
 151. Grépin, C., L., Robitaille, T. Antakly, and M. Nemer. Inhibition of transcription factor GATA‐4 expression blocks in vitro cardiac muscle differentiation. Mol. Cell. Biol. 15: 4095–4102, 1995.
 152. Gunning, M. E., B. J., Ballermann, P. Silva, B. M. Brenner, and M. L. Zeidel. Characterization of ANP receptors in rabbit inner medullary collecting duct cells. Am J. Physiol. 255 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 24): F324–F330, 1988.
 153. Gutkowska, J., G., Thibault, P. Januszewicz, M. Cantin, and J. Genest. Direct radioimmunoassay of atrial natriuretic factor. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 122: 593–601, 1984.
 154. Haass, M., T. A., Fischer, J. Hänze, W. Saggau, R. E. Lang, and R. Dietz. Atrial natriuretic peptide mRNA in patients with heart disease. Am. J. Hypertens. 3: 234–236, 1990.
 155. Hall, C., C. P., Cannon, S. Forman, and E. Braunwald. Prognostic value of N‐terminal proatrial natriuretic factor plasma levels measured within the first 12 hours after myocardial infarction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 26: 1452–1456, 1995.
 156. Hall, C., J. L., Rouleau, L. Moye, et al, N‐terminal proatrial natriuretic factor. An independent predictor of long‐term prognosis after myocardial infarction [see comments]. Circulation 89: 1934–1942, 1994.
 157. Hama, N., H., Itoh, G. Shirakami, et al, Rapid ventricular induction of brain natriuretic peptide gene expression in experimental acute myocardial infarction. Circulation 92: 1558–1564, 1995.
 158. Hamra, F. K., X., Fan, W. J. Krause, R. H. Freeman, D. T. Chin, C. E. Smith, M. G. Currie, and L. R. Forte. Prouroguanylin and proguanylin: purification from colon, structure, and modulation of bioactivity by proteases. Endocrinology 137: 257–265, 1996.
 159. Hanford, D. S., D. J., Thuerauf, S. F. Murray, and C. C. Glembotski. Brain natriuretic peptide is induced by α1‐adrenergic agonists as a primary response gene in cultured rat cardiac myocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 26227–26233, 1994.
 160. Harris, P. J., D., Thomas, and T. O. Morgan. Atrial natriuretic peptide inhibits angiotensin‐stimulated proximal tubular sodium and water reabsorption. Nature 326: 697–698, 1987.
 161. Hasebe, N., L., Hittinger, S. Kohin, Y. T. Shen, R. M. Graham, and S. F. Vatner. Effects of hypertrophy on left atrial and ventricular compliance and plasma ANF levels in conscious dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 268 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 37): H781–H787, 1995.
 162. Hashiguchi, T., K., Higuchi, M. Ohashi, R. Takayanagi, H. Matsuo, and H. Nawata. Effect of porcine brain natriuretic peptide (pBNP) on human adrenocortical steroidogenesis. Clin. Endocrinol. 31: 623–630, 1989.
 163. Hayashi, J., M., Ohni, H. Manabe, and Y. Watanabe. Biochemical mechanism of release of atrial natriuretic polypeptide. Jpn. Circ. J. 52: 1421–1424, 1988.
 164. Healy, D. P., and D. D. Fanestil. Localization of atrial natriuretic peptide binding sites within the rat kidney. Am. J. Physiol. 250 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 19): F573–F578, 1986.
 165. Heikinheimo, M., J. M., Scandrett, and D. B. Wilson. Localization of transcription factor GATA‐4 to regions of the mouse embryo involved in cardiac development. Dev. Biol. 164: 361–373, 1994.
 166. Henrich, W. L., E. A., McAlister, P. B. Smith, J. Lipton, and W. B. Campbell. Direct inhibitory effect of atriopeptin III on renin release in primate kidney. Life Sci. 41: 259–264, 1987.
 167. Hibbs, R. G., and V. J. Ferrans. An ultrastructural and histochemical study of rat atrial myocardium. Am. J. Anat. 124: 251–279, 1969.
 168. Hill, O., Y., Cetin, A. Cieslak, H. J. Magert, and W. G. Forssmann. A new human guanylate cyclase‐activating peptide (GCAP‐II, uroguanylin): precursor cDNA and colonic expression. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1253: 146–149, 1995.
 169. Hill, O., M., Kuhn, H. D. Zucht, Y. Cetin, H. Kulaksiz, K. Adermann, G. Klock, G. Rechkemmer, W. G. Forssmann, and H. J. Magert. Analysis of the human guanylin gene and the processing and cellular localization of the peptide. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92: 2046–2050, 1995.
 170. Hintze, T. H.. Significance of renal vasodilation after administration of atrial natriuretic factor in the conscious dog. Hypertension 12: 143–151, 1988.
 171. Hintze, T. H., M. G., Currie, and P. Needleman. Atriopeptins: renal‐specific vasodilators in conscious dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 248 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 17): H587–H591, 1985.
 172. Hirata, Y., M., Ishii, T. Sugimoto, H. Matsuoka, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. The effects of human atrial 28‐amino acid peptide on systemic and renal hemodynamics in anesthetized rats. Circ. Res. 57: 634–639, 1985.
 173. Hirose, S., F., Akiyama, M. Shinjo, H. Ohno, and K. Murakami. Solubilization and molecular weight estimation of atrial natriuretic factor receptor from bovine adrenal cortex. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 130: 574–579, 1985.
 174. Holtz, J., D. J., Stewart, D. Elsner, and E. Bassenge. In vivo atrial peptide‐venodilation: minimal potency relative to nitroglycerin in dogs. Life Sci. 39: 2177–2184, 1986.
 175. Horio, T., M., Kohno, and T. Takeda. Effects of arginine vasopressin, angiotensin II and endothelin‐1 on the release of brain natriuretic peptide in vivo and in vitro. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 19: 575–582, 1992.
 176. Horio, T., M., Kohno, and T. Takeda. Cosecretion of atrial and brain natriuretic peptides stimulated by endothelin‐1 from cultured rat atrial and ventricular cardiocytes. Metabolism 42: 94–96, 1993.
 177. Horvath, J., T., Ertl, and A. V. Schally. Effect of atrial natriuretic peptide on gonadotropin release in superfused rat pituitary cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83: 3444–3446, 1986.
 178. Hosoda, K., K., Nakao, M. Mukoyama, Y. Saito, M. Jougasaki, G. Shirakami, S. Suga, Y. Ogawa, H. Yasue, and H. Imura. Expression of brain natriuretic peptide gene in human heart‐production in the ventricle. Hypertension 17: 1152–1156, 1991.
 179. Hu, J. R., U. G., Berninger, and R. E. Lang. Endothelin stimulates atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) release from rat atria. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 158: 177–178, 1988.
 180. Hu, R. M., E. R., Levin, A. Pedram, and H. J. Frank. Atrial natriuretic peptide inhibits the production and secretion of endothelin from cultured endothelial cells. Mediation through the C receptor. J. Biol. Chem. 267: 17384–17389, 1992.
 181. Huang, C. L., J., Lewicki, L. K. Johnson, and M. G. Cogan. Renal mechanism of action of rat atrial natriuretic factor. J. Clin. Invest. 75: 769–773, 1985.
 182. Huang, F., and W. Samson. An enkephalinergic mechanism for the hypothalamic effect of atrial natriuretic peptide to inhibit luteinizing hormone secretion. J. Neuroendocrinal. 3: 128–132, 1991.
 183. Huang, F. S., K. D., Skala, and W. K. Samson. Hypothalamic effects of C‐type natriuretic peptide on luteinizing hormone secretion. J. Neuroendocrinal. 4: 325–330, 1992.
 184. Hunt, P. J., E. A., Espiner, A.M. Richards, T. G. Yandle, C. Frampton, and M. G. Nicholls. Interactions of atrial and brain natriuretic peptides at pathophysiological levels in normal men. Am. J. Physiol. 269 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 38): R1397–R1403, 1995.
 185. Huxley, V. H., V. L., Tucker, K. M. Verburg, and R. H. Freeman. Increased capillary hydraulic conductivity induced by atrial natriuretic peptide. Circ. Res. 60: 304–307, 1987.
 186. Iida, H., and Y. Shibata. Phasic secretion of newly synthesized atrial natriuretic factor from unstimulated atrial myocytes in culture. Circ. Res. 74: 659–668, 1994.
 187. Imada, T., R., Takayanagi, and T. Inagami. Atrioactivase, a specific peptidase in bovine atria for the processing of pro‐atrial natriuretic factor. Purification and characterization. J. Biol. Chem. 263: 9515–9519, 1988.
 188. Inoue, H., K., Hashimoto, and Z. Ota. In vitro release of immunoreactive atrial natriuretic peptide from the rat atria. Acta Med. Okayama 42: 61–67, 1988.
 189. Ito, H., Y., Hirata, M. Hiroe, M. Tsujino, S. Adachi, T. Takamoto, M. Nitta, K. Taniguchi, and F. Marumo. Endothelin‐1 induces hypertrophy with enhanced expression of muscle‐specific genes in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Circ. Res. 69: 209–215, 1991.
 190. Ito, H., M., Hiroe, Y. Hirata, H. Fujisaki, S. Adachi, H. Akimoto, Y. Ohta, and F. Marumo. Endothelin ETA receptor antagonist blocks cardiac hypertrophy provoked by hemodynamic overload. Circulation 89: 2198–2203, 1994.
 191. Itoh, H., K., Nakao, G. Katsuura, et al, Centrally infused atrial natriuretic polypeptide attenuates exaggerated salt appetite in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Circ. Res. 59: 342–347, 1986.
 192. Itoh, H., R. E., Pratt, and V. J. Dzau. Atrial natriuretic polypeptide inhibits hypertrophy of vascular smooth muscle cells. J. Clin. Invest. 86: 1690–1697, 1990.
 193. Itoh, H., R. E., Pratt, and V. J. Dzau. Interaction of atrial natriuretic polypeptide and angiotensin II on protooncogene expression and vascular cell growth. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 176: 1601–1609, 1991.
 194. Itoh, H., R. E., Pratt, M. Ohno, and V. J. Dzau. Atrial natriuretic polypeptide as a novel antigrowth factor of endothelial cells. Hypertension 19: 758–761, 1992.
 195. Izumo, S., B., Nadal‐Ginard, and V. Mahdavi. Protooncogene induction and reprogramming of cardiac gene expression produced by pressure overload. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85: 339–343, 1988.
 196. Jamieson, J. D., and G. E. Palade. Specific granules in atrial muscle cells. J. Cell Biol. 23: 151–172, 1964.
 197. Jarygin, C., J., Hanze, and R. E. Lang. Gene expression of atrial natriuretic peptide in rat papillary muscle. Rapid induction by mechanical loading. FEBS Lett. 346: 185–188, 1994.
 198. Jennings, D. B., and T. G. Flynn. Cardiovascular and renal effects of iso‐rANP, a second natriuretic peptide from rat atria. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 67: 1372–1379, 1989.
 199. Jiao, J. H., and A. J. Baertschi. Synergistic regulation of ANF in isolated rat hearts. Am. J. Physiol. 268 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 37): H1405–H1411, 1995.
 200. John, S. W., J. H., Krege, P. M. Oliver, J. R. Hagaman, J. R. Hodgin, S. C. Pang, T. G. Flynn, and O. Smithies. Genetic decreases in atrial natriuretic peptide and salt‐sensitive hypertension. Science 267: 679–681, 1995.
 201. Jones, L. G., J. D., Rozich, H. Tsutsui, and G. Cooper IV. Endothelin stimulates multiple responses in isolated adult ventricular cardiac myocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 263 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 32): H1447–H1454, 1992.
 202. Jougasaki, M., H., Yasue, K. Okumura, M. Mukoyama, Y. Saito, K. Nakao, and K. Takahashi. Atrial natriuretic peptide in the ventricles of patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and human foetuses. Histochem. J. 21: 715–720, 1989.
 203. Kambayashi, Y., K., Nakao, H. Itoh, et al, Isolation and sequence determination of rat cardiac natriuretic peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 163: 233–240, 1989.
 204. Kangawa, K., A., Fukuda, and H. Matsuo. Structural identification of beta‐ and gamma‐human atrial natriuretic polypeptides. Nature 313: 397–400, 1985.
 205. Kangawa, K., A., Fukuda, N. Minamino, and H. Matsuo. Purification and complete amino acid sequence of beta‐rat atrial natriuretic polypeptide (beta‐rANP) of 5,000 daltons. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 119: 933–940, 1984.
 206. Kangawa, K., and H. Matsuo. Purification and complete amino acid sequence of alpha‐human atrial natriuretic polypeptide (alpha‐hANP). Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 118: 131–139, 1984.
 207. Kangawa, K., Y., Tawaragi, S. Oikawa, A. Mizuno, Y. Sakuragawa, H. Nakazato, A. Fukuda, N. Minamino, and H. Matsuo. Identification of rat gamma atrial natriuretic polypeptide and characterization of the cDNA encoding its precursor. Nature 312: 152–155, 1984.
 208. Keith, A., and M. W. Flack. The form and nature of the muscular connections between the primary division of the vertebrate heart. J. Anat. Physiol. 41: 172–195, 1907.
 209. Kennedy, B. P., J. J., Marsden, T. G. Flynn, A. J. de Bold, and P. L. Davies. Isolation and nucleotide sequence of a cloned cardionatrin cDNA. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 122: 1076–1082, 1984.
 210. Kentsch, M., R., Lawrenz, P. Ball, R. Gerzer, and G. Muller‐Esch. Effects of atrial natriuretic factor on anterior pituitary hormone secretion in normal man. Clin. Invest. 70: 549–555, 1992.
 211. Kisch, B.. A significant electron microscopic difference between the atria and the ventricles of the mammalian heart. Exp. Med. Surg. 21: 193–221, 1963.
 212. Kishimoto, I., S. K., Dubois, and D. L. Garbers. The heart communicates with the kidney exclusively through the guanylyl cyclase‐A receptor: acute handling of sodium and water in response to volume expansion. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 93: 6215–6219, 1996.
 213. Kita, T., O., Kida, N. Yokota, T. Eto, N. Minamino, K. Kangawa, H. Matsuo, and K. Tanaka. Effects of brain natriuretic peptide‐45, a circulating form of rat brain natriuretic peptide, in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 202: 73–79, 1991.
 214. Kita, T., C. E., Smith, K. F. Fok, et al, Characterization of human uroguanylin: a member of the guanylin peptide family. Am. J. Physiol. 266 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 35): F342–F348, 1994.
 215. Knowlton, K. U., E., Baracchini, R. S. Ross, A. N. Harris, S. A. Henderson, S. M. Evans, C. C. Glembotski, and K. R. Chien. Co‐regulation of the atrial natriuretic factor and cardiac myosin light chain‐2 genes during alpha‐adrenergic stimulation of neonatal rat ventricular cells. Identification of cis sequences within an embryonic and a constitutive contractile protein gene which mediate inducible expression. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 7759–7768, 1991.
 216. Knowlton, K. U., M. C., Michel, M. Itani, H. E. Shubeita, K. Ishihara, J. H. Brown, and K. R. Chien. The alpha 1A‐adrenergic receptor subtype mediates biochemical, molecular, and morphologic features of cultured myocardial cell hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 15374–15380, 1993.
 217. Knowlton, K. U., H. A., Rockman, M. Itani, A. Vovan, C. E. Seidman, and K. R. Chien. Divergent pathways mediate the induction of ANF transgenes in neonatal and hypertrophic ventricular myocardium. J. Clin. Invest. 96: 1311–1318, 1995.
 218. Kohno, M., T., Horio, M. Ikeda, K. Yokokawa, T. Fukui, K. Yasunari, K. Murakawa, N. Kurihara, and T. Takeda. Natriuretic peptides inhibit mesangial cell production of endothelin induced by arginine vasopressin. Am. J. Physiol. 264 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 33): F678–F683, 1993.
 219. Kohno, M., T., Horio, K. Yokokawa, N. Kurihara, and T. Takeda. C‐type natriuretic peptide inhibits thrombin‐ and angiotensin II–stimulated endothelin release via cyclic guanosine 3′,5′‐monophosphate. Hypertension 19: 320–325, 1992.
 220. Kohno, M., K., Yasunari, K. Yokokawa, K. Murakawa, T. Horio, and T. Takeda. Inhibition by atrial and brain natriuretic peptides of endothelin‐1 secretion after stimulation with angiotensin II and thrombin of cultured human endothelial cells. J. Clin. Invest. 87: 1999–2004, 1991.
 221. Kohno, M., K., Yokokawa, T. Horio, K. Yasunari, K. Murakawa, and T. Takeda. Atrial and brain natriuretic peptides inhibit the endothelin‐1 secretory response to angiotensin II in porcine aorta. Circ. Res. 70: 241–247, 1992.
 222. Kohtz, D. S., N. R., Dische, T. Inagami, and B. Goldman. Growth and partial differentiation of presumptive human cardiac myoblasts in culture. J. Cell Biol. 108: 1067–1078, 1989.
 223. Kojima, M., N., Minamino, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Cloning and sequence analysis of cDNA encoding a precursor for rat brain natriuretic peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 159: 1420–1426, 1989.
 224. Kojima, M., N., Minamino, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Cloning and sequence analysis of a cDNA encoding a precursor for rat C‐type natriuretic peptide (CNP). FEBS Lett. 276: 209–213, 1990.
 225. Kolbeck‐Ruhmkorff, C., A., Horban, and H. G. Zimmer. Effect of pressure and volume overload on proto‐oncogene expression in the isolated working rat heart. Cardiovasc. Res. 27: 1998–2004, 1993.
 226. Koller, K. J., and D. V. Goeddel. Molecular biology of the natriuretic peptides and their receptors. Circulation 86: 1081–1088, 1992.
 227. Koller, K. J., D. G., Lowe, G. L. Bennett, N. Minamino, K. Kangawa, H. Matsuo, and D. V. Goeddel. Selective activation of the B natriuretic peptide receptor by C‐type natriuretic peptide (CNP). Science 252: 120–123, 1991.
 228. Koller, P. T., R. J., Grekin, and J. M. Nicklas. Paradoxical response of plasma atrial natriuretic hormone to pericardiocentesis in cardiac tamponade. Am. J. Cardiol. 59: 491–492, 1987.
 229. Komuro, I., T., Kaida, Y. Shibazaki, M. Kurabayashi, Y. Katoh, E. Hoh, F. Takaku, and Y. Yazaki. Stretching cardiac myocytes stimulates protooncogene expression. J. Biol. Chem. 265: 3595–3598, 1990.
 230. Komuro, I., Y., Katoh, T. Kaida, Y. Shibazaki, M. Kurabayashi, E. Hoh, F. Takaku, and Y. Yazaki. Mechanical loading stimulates cell hypertrophy and specific gene expression in cultured rat cardiac myocytes. Possible role of protein kinase C activation. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 1265–1268, 1991.
 231. Komuro, I., M., Kurabayashi, F. Takaku, and Y. Yasaki. Expression of cellular oncogenes in the myocardium during the developmental stage and pressure‐overloaded hypertrophy on the rat heart. Circ. Res. 62: 1075–1079, 1988.
 232. Kondo, Y., M., Imai, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Lack of direct action of alpha‐human atrial natriuretic polypeptide on the in vitro perfused segments of Henle's loop isolated from rabbit kidney. Pflugers Arch. 406: 273–278, 1986.
 233. Koseki, C., Y., Hayashi, S. Torikai, M. Furuya, N. Ohmura, and M. Imai. Localization of binding sites of α‐rat atrial natriuretic polypeptide in rat kidney. Am. J. Physiol. 250 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 19): F210–F216, 1986.
 234. Kovacic‐Milivojevic, B., and D. G. Gardner. Divergent regulation of the human atrial natriuretic peptide gene by c‐jun and c‐fos. Mol. Cell. Biol. 12: 292–301, 1992.
 235. Kovacic‐Milivojevic, B., and D. G. Gardner. Regulation of the human atrial natriuretic peptide gene in atrial cardiocytes by the transcription factor AP‐1. Am. J. Hypertens. 6: 258–263, 1993.
 236. Kovacic‐Milivojevic, B., and D. G. Gardner. Fra‐1, a Fos gene family member that activates atrial natriuretic peptide gene transcription. Hypertension 25: 679–682, 1995.
 237. Kudo, T., and A. Baird. Inhibition of aldosterone production in the adrenal glomerulosa by atrial natriuretic factor. Nature 312: 756–757, 1984.
 238. Kuhn, M., H., Kulaksiz, K. Adermann, G. Rechkemmer, and W. G. Forssmann. Radioimmunoassay for circulating human guanylin. FEBS Lett. 341: 218–222, 1994.
 239. Kuliawat, R., and P. Arvan. Protein targeting via the “constitutive‐like” secretory pathway in isolated pancreatic islets: passive sorting in the immature granule compartment. J. Cell Biol. 118: 521–529, 1992.
 240. Kuno, T., J. W., Andresen, Y. Kamisaki, S. A. Waldman, L. Y. Chang, S. Saheki, D. C. Leitman, M. Nakane, and F. Murad. Co‐purification of an atrial natriuretic factor receptor and particulate guanylate cyclase from rat lung. J. Biol. Chem. 261: 5817–5823, 1986.
 241. Kuroski‐de Bold, M. L., and A. J. de Bold. Stretch–secretion coupling in atrial cardiocytes. Dissociation between atrial natriuretic factor release and mechanical activity. Hypertension 18 (Suppl. 3): III‐169–III‐178, 1991.
 242. Kuroski‐de Bold, M. L., O. Pulido, G. Dubé, B. E. Fernandez, and A. J. de Bold. Morphological and biochemical studies on the subcellular distribution of A‐ and B‐type natriuretic factors in the rat heart [abstract]. FASEB J. 6: A1234, 1992.
 243. Kurtz, A., R. Della Bruna, J. Pfeilschifter, R. Taugner, and C. Bauer. Atrial natriuretic peptide inhibits renin release from juxtaglomerular cells by a cGMP‐mediated process. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83: 4769–4773, 1986.
 244. Lachance, D., R., Garcia, J. Gutkowska, M. Cantin, and G. Thibault. Mechanisms of release of atrial natriuretic factor. I. Effect of several agonists and steroids on its release by atrial minces. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 135: 1090–1098, 1986.
 245. Ladenson, P. W., K. D., Bloch, and J. G. Seidman. Modulation of atrial natriuretic factor by thyroid hormone: messenger ribonucleic acid and peptide levels in hypothyroid, euthyroid, and hyperthyroid rat atria and ventricles. Endocrinology 123: 652–657, 1988.
 246. Lang, R. E., H., Thölken, D. Ganten, F. C. Luft, T. Unger, and D. Dohlemann. Atrial natriuretic factor: a circulating hormone stimulated by volume loading. Nature 314: 264–266, 1985.
 247. LaPointe, M. C., and J. R. Sitkins. Phorbol ester stimulates the synthesis and secretion of brain natriuretic peptide from neonatal rat ventricular cardiocytes: a comparison with the regulation of atrial natriuretic factor. Mol. Endocrinol. 7: 1284–1296, 1993.
 248. LaPointe, M. C., J. P., Wu, B. Greenberg, and D. G. Gardner. Upstream sequences confer atrial‐specific expression on the human atrial natriuretic factor gene. J. Biol. Chem. 263: 9075–9078, 1988.
 249. Lappe, R. W., J. F. M., Smits, J. A. Todt, J. J. M. Debets, and R. L. Wendt. Failure of atriopeptin II to cause aterial vasodilation in the conscious rat. Circ. Res. 56: 606–612, 1985.
 250. Lappe, R. W., J. A., Todt, and R. L. Wendt. Mechanism of action of vasoconstrictor responses to atriopeptin II in conscious SHR. Am. J. Physiol. 249 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 18): R781–R786, 1985.
 251. Lattion, A. L., J. B., Michel, E. Arnauld, P. Corvol, and F. Soubrier. Myocardial recruitment during ANF mRNA increase with volume overload in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 251 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 20): H890–H896, 1986.
 252. Laxson, D. D., X. Z., Dai, J. S. Schwartz, and R. J. Bache. Effects of atrial natriuretic peptide on coronary vascular resistance in the intact awake dog. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 11: 624–629, 1988.
 253. Lazzeri, C., G. La Villa, G. Bisi, V. Boddi, G. Messeri, G. Strazzulla, and F. Franchi. Cardiovascular function during brain natriuretic peptide infusion in man. Cardiology. 86: 396–401, 1995.
 254. Ledsome, J. R., N., Wilson, C. A. Courneya, and A. J. Rankin. Release of atrial natriuretic peptide by atrial distension. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 63: 739–742, 1985.
 255. Lee, R. T., K. D., Bloch, J. M. Pfeffer, M. A. Pfeffer, E. J. Neer, and C. E. Seidman. Atrial natriuretic factor gene expression in ventricles of rats with spontaneous biventricular hypertrophy. J. Clin. Invest. 81: 431–434, 1988.
 256. Leite, M. F., E., Page, and S. K. Ambler. Regulation of ANP secretion by endothelin‐1 in cultured atrial myocytes: desensitization and receptor subtype. Am. J. Physiol. 267 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 36): H2193–H2203, 1994.
 257. Leitman, D. C., J. W., Andresen, T. Kuno, Y. Kamisaki, J. K. Chang, and F. Murad. Identification of multiple binding sites for atrial natriuretic factor by affinity cross‐linking in cultured endothelial cells. J. Biol. Chem. 261: 11650–11655, 1986.
 258. Lerman, A., R. J., Gibbons, R. J. Rodeheffer, K. R. Bailey, L. J. McKinley, D. M. Heublein, and J. C. Burnett, Jr.. Circulating N‐terminal atrial natriuretic peptide as a marker for symptomless left‐ventricular dysfunction [see comments]. Lancet 341: 1105–1109, 1993.
 259. Leskinen, H., O., Vuolteenaho, and H. Ruskoaho. Endothelin receptor antagonists inhibit volume load‐induced atrial natriuretic peptide release in vivo [abstract]. Circulation 92: I–220, 1995.
 260. Levin, E. R.. Natriuretic peptide C‐receptor: more than a clearance receptor. Am. J. Physiol. 264 (Endocrinol. Metab. 27): E483–E489, 1993.
 261. Lewis, T., B. S., Oppenheimer, and A. Oppenheimer. The site of origin of the mammalian heart beat: the pacemaker of the dog. Heart 2: 147–153, 1910.
 262. Li, Q., and D. G. Gardner. Negative regulation of the human atrial natriuretic peptide gene by 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 4934–4939, 1994.
 263. Li, Z., and M. F. Goy. Peptide‐regulated guanylate cyclase pathways in rat colon: in situ localization of GCA, GCC, and guanylin mRNA. Am. J. Physiol. 265 (Gastrointest. Liver Physiol. 28): G394–G402, 1993.
 264. Li, Z., B., Taylor‐Blake, A. R. Light, and M. F. Goy. Guanylin, an endogenous ligand for C‐type guanylate cyclase, is produced by goblet cells in the rat intestine [comment]. Gastroenterology 109: 1863–1875, 1995.
 265. Lincoln, T. M., and T. L. Cornwell. Intracellular cyclic GMP receptor proteins. FASEB J. 7: 328–338, 1993.
 266. Lowe, D. G., M. S., Chang, R. Hellmiss, E. Chen, S. Singh, D. L. Garbers, and D. V. Goeddel. Human atrial natriuretic peptide receptor defines a new paradigm for second messenger signal transduction. EMBO J. 8: 1377–1384, 1989.
 267. Lynch, D. R., J. C., Venable, and S. H. Snyder. Enkephalin convertase in the heart: similar disposition to atrial natriuretic factor. Endocrinology 122: 2683–2691, 1988.
 268. Maack, T., D. N., Marion, M. J. Camargo, H. D. Kleinert, J. H. Laragh, Jr., E. D. Vaughan, and S. A. Atlas. Effects of auriculin (atrial natriuretic factor) on blood pressure, renal function, and the renin–aldosterone system in dogs. Am. J. Med. 77: 1069–1075, 1984.
 269. Maack, T., M., Suzuki, F. A. Almeida, D. Nussenzveig, R. M. Scarborough, G. A. McEnroe, and J. A. Lewicki. Physiological role of silent receptors of atrial natriuretic factor. Science 238: 675–678, 1987.
 270. Mägert, H. J., H., Appelhans, H. G. Gassen, and W. G. Forssmann. Nucleotide sequence of a porcine prepro atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) cDNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 18: 6704, 1990.
 271. Maki, M., R., Takayanagi, K. S. Misono, K. N. Pandey, C. Tibbetts, and T. Inagami. Structure of rat atrial natriuretic factor precursor deduced from cDNA sequence. Nature 309: 722–724, 1984.
 272. Manning, P. T., D., Schwartz, N. C. Katsube, S. W. Holmberg, and P. Needleman. Vasopressin‐stimulated release of atriopeptin: endocrine antagonists in fluid homeostasis. Science 229: 395–397, 1985.
 273. Mäntymaa, P., J., Leppäluoto, and H. Ruskoaho. Endothelin stimulates basal and stretch‐induced atrial natriuretic peptide secretion from the perfused rat heart. Endocrinology 126: 587–595, 1990.
 274. Mäntymaa, P., O., Vuolteenaho, M. Marttila, and H. Ruskoaho. Atrial stretch induces rapid increase in brain natriuretic peptide but not in atrial natriuretic peptide gene expression in vitro. Endocrinology 133: 1470–1473, 1993.
 275. Marie, J.‐P., H., Guillemot, and P.‐Y. Hatt. Le degré de granulation des cardiocytes auricularies. Étude planimétrique au cours de différents apports d'eau et de sodium chez le rat. Pathol. Biol. (Paris) 24: 549–554, 1976.
 276. Martinez‐Palomo, A., and S. A. Bencosme. Changes in the content of myocardial specific granules in adrenal regeneration hypertension [abstract]. Federation Proc. 25: 476a, 1966.
 277. Matsubara, H., Y., Hirata, H. Yoshimi, S. Takata, Y. Takagi, T. Iida, Y. Yamane, Y. Umeda, M. Nishikawa, and M. Inada. Effects of steroid and thyroid hormones on synthesis of atrial natriuretic peptide by cultured atrial myocytes of rat. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 145: 336–343, 1987.
 278. Matsubara, H., Y., Hirata, H. Yoshimi, S. Takata, Y. Takagi, Y. Umeda, Y. Yamane, and M. Inada. Role of calcium and protein kinase C in ANP secretion by cultured rat cardiocytes. Am. J. Physiol. 255 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 24): H405–H409, 1988.
 279. Matsubara, H., Y., Hirata, H. Yoshimi, S. Takata, Y. Takagi, Y. Yamane, Y. Umeda, M. Nishikawa, and M. Inada. Ventricular myocytes from neonatal rats are more responsive to dexamethasone than atrial myocytes in synthesis of atrial natriuretic peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 148: 1030–1038, 1987.
 280. McBride, K., L., Robitaille, S. Tremblay, S. Argentin, and M. Nemer. fos/jun repression of cardiac‐specific transcription in quiescent and growth‐stimulated myocytes is targeted at a tissue‐specific cis element. Mol. Cell. Biol. 13: 600–612, 1993.
 281. McCarthy, R. T., C. M., Isales, W. B. Bollag, H. Rasmussen, and P. Q. Barrett. Atrial natriuretic peptide differentially modulates T‐ and L‐type calcium channels. Am. J. Physiol. 258 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 27): F473–F478, 1990.
 282. McDonough, P. M., J. H., Brown, and C. C. Glembotski. Phenylephrine and endothelin differentially stimulate cardiac PI hydrolysis and ANF expression. Am. J. Physiol. 264 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 33): H625–H630, 1993.
 283. McKenzie, J. C., I., Tanaka, K. S. Misono, and T. Inagami. Immunocytochemical localization of atrial natriuretic factor in the kidney, adrenal medulla, pituitary, and atrium of rat. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 33: 828–832, 1985.
 284. Meloche, S., H., Ong, M. Cantin, and A. De Lean. Affinity cross‐linking of atrial natriuretic factor to its receptor in bovine adrenal zona glomerulosa. J. Biol. Chem. 261: 1525–1528, 1986.
 285. Mendez, R. E., B. R., Dunn, J. L. Troy, and B. M. Brenner. Modulation of the natriuretic response to atrial natriuretic peptide by alterations in peritubular Starling forces in the rat. Circ. Res. 59: 605–611, 1986.
 286. Mercadier, J. J., J. L., Samuel, J. B. Michel, M. A. Zongazo, D. de la Bastie, A. Lompré, C. Wisnewsky, L. Rappaport, B. Levy, and K. Schwartz. Atrial natriuretic factor gene expression in rat ventricle during experimental hypertension. Am. J. Physiol. 257 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 26): H979–H987, 1989.
 287. Metzler, C. H., and D. J. Ramsay. Physiological doses of atrial peptide inhibit angiotensin II–stimulated aldosterone secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 256 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 25): R1155–R1159, 1989.
 288. Michener, M. L., J. K., Gierse, R. Seetharam, K. F. Fok, P. O. Olins, M. S. Mai, and P. Needleman. Proteolytic processing of atriopeptin prohormone. Mol. Pharmacol. 30: 552–557, 1986.
 289. Miki, K., G., Hajduczok, M. R. Klocke, J. A. Krasney, S. K. Hong, and A. J. de Bold. Atrial natriuretic factor and renal function during head‐out water immersion in conscious dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 251 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 20): R1000–R1004, 1986.
 290. Miki, K., K., Shiraki, S. Sagawa, A. J. de Bold, and S. K. Hong. Atrial natriuretic factor during head‐out immersion at night. Am. J. Physiol. 254 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 23): R235–R241, 1988.
 291. Miller‐Hance, W. C., M., LaCorbière, S. J. Fuller, S. M. Evans, G. Lyons, C. Schmidt, J. Robbins, and K. R. Chien. In vitro chamber specification during embryonic stem cell cardiogenesis. Expression of the ventricular myosin light chain‐2 gene is independant of heart tube formation. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 25244–25252, 1993.
 292. Misono, K. S., H., Fukumi, R. T. Grammer, and T. Inagami. Rat atrial natriuretic factor: complete amino acid sequence and disulfide linkage essential for biological activity. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 119: 524–529, 1984.
 293. Misono, K. S., R. T., Grammer, H. Fukumi, and T. Inagami. Rat atrial natriuretic factor: isolation, structure and biological activities of four major peptides. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 123: 444–451, 1984.
 294. Miyazato, M., M., Nakazato, H. Yamaguchi, Y. Date, M. Kojima, K. Kangawa, H. Matsuo, and S. Matsukura. Cloning and characterization of a cDNA encoding a precursor for human uroguanylin. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 219: 644–648, 1996.
 295. Mochizuki, N., H., Sawa, H. Yasuda, T. Shinohara, K. Nagashima, T. Yamaji, N. Ohnuma, and W. W. Hall. Distribution of atrial natriuretic peptide in the conduction system and ventricular muscles of the human heart. Virchows Arch. 418: 9–16, 1991.
 296. Mori, Y., M., Nishikawa, H. Matsubara, T. Takagi, N. Toyoda, S. Oikawa, and M. Inada. Stimulation of rat atrial natriuretic peptide (rANP) synthesis by triiodothyronine and thyroxine (T4): T4 as a prohormone is synthesizing rANP. Endocrinology 126: 466–471, 1990.
 297. Mori, Y., M., Nishikawa, H. Matsubara, N. Toyoda, H. Masaki, T. Yonemoto, T. Takagi, and M. Inada. Regulation of atrial natriuretic hormone production by triiodothyronine in cultured rat atrial myocytes. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 125: 694–699, 1991.
 298. Morise, T., Y., Takeuchi, S. Okamoto, and R. Takeda. Stimulation of atrial natriuretic peptide secretion and synthesis by Na‐K‐ATPase inhibitors. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 176: 875–881, 1991.
 299. Morishita, R., G. H., Gibbons, R. E. Pratt, N. Tomita, Y. Kaneda, T. Ogihara, and V. J. Dzau. Autocrine and paracrine effects of atrial natriuretic peptide gene transfer on vascular smooth muscle and endothelial cellular growth. J. Clin. Invest. 94: 824–829, 1994.
 300. Motwani, J. G., H., McAlpine, N. Kennedy, and A. D. Struthers. Plasma brain natriuretic peptide as an indicator for angiotensin‐converting‐enzyme inhibition after myocardial infarction [see comments]. Lancet 341: 1109–1113, 1993.
 301. Muir, T. M., J., Hair, G. C. Inglis, J. W. Dow, G. B. Lindop, and B. J. Leckie. Hormonal control of atrial natriuretic peptide synthesis and secretion from cultured atrial myocytes. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 25: 509–518, 1993.
 302. Mukherjee, D. P., C. F., McTiernan, and S. Sen. Myotrophin induces early response genes and enhances cardiac gene expression. Hypertension 21: 142–148, 1993.
 303. Mukoyama, M., K., Nakao, K. Hosoda, S. Suga, Y. Saito, Y. Ogawa, G. Shirakami, M. Jougasaki, K. Obata, H. Yasue, Y. Kambayashi, K. Inoue, and H. Imura. Brain natriuretic peptide as a novel cardiac hormone in humans. Evidence for an exquisite dual natriuretic peptide system, atrial natriuretic peptide and brain natriuretic peptide. J. Clin. Invest. 87: 1402–1412, 1991.
 304. Murphy, K. M., L. L., McLaughlin, M. L. Michener, and P. Needleman. Autoradiographic localization of atriopeptin III receptors in rat kidney. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 111: 291–292, 1985.
 305. Nakayama, K., H., Ohkubo, T. Hirose, S. Inayama, and S. Nakanishi. mRNA sequence for human cardiodilatin‐atrial natriuretic factor precursor and regulation of precursor mRNA in rat atria. Nature 310: 699–701, 1984.
 306. Nakazato, M., H., Yamaguchi, H. Kinoshita, K. Kangawa, H. Matsuo, N. Chino, and S. Matsukura. Identification of biologically active and inactive human uroguanylins in plasma and urine and their increases in renal insufficiency. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 220: 586–593, 1996.
 307. Nanot, J., and G. Le Douarin. Étude au microscope électronique du myocarde du foetus de souris: influence de l'adrénaline et de la noradrénaline sur la teneur en granules spécifiques. C. R. Seances Soc. Biol. Fil. 164: 890–893, 1970.
 308. Napier, M. A., R. S., Dewey, G. Albers‐Schonberg, C. D. Bennett, J. A. Rodkey, E. A. Marsh, M. Whinnery, A. A. Seymour, and E. H. Blaine. Isolation and sequence determination of peptide components of atrial natriuretic factor. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 120: 981–988, 1984.
 309. Nazario, B., R. M., Hu, A. Pedram, B. Prins, and E. R. Levin. Atrial and brain natriuretic peptides stimulate the production and secretion of C‐type natriuretic peptide from bovine aortic endothelial cells. J. Clin. Invest. 95: 1151–1157, 1995.
 310. Nemer, M., M., Chamberland, D. Sirois, S. Argentin, J. Drouin, R. A. Dixon, R. A. Zivin, and J. H. Condra. Gene structure of human cardiac hormone precursor, pronatriodilatin. Nature 312: 654–656, 1984.
 311. Nomura, T., H., Kurokawa, S. Kanda, K. Mizukawa, J. Sasaki, and N. Otsuka. Exocytotic features of rat specific atrial granules. Acta Med. Okayama 42: 201–206, 1988.
 312. Northridge, D. B., J., McMurray, S. Ray, A. Jardine, and H. J. Dargie. Release of atrial natriuretic factor after pericardiocentesis for malignant pericardial effusion. BMJ 299: 603–604, 1989.
 313. Ogawa, T., W., Linz, M. Stevenson, B. G. Bruneau, M. L. Kuroski‐de Bold, J. H. Chen, H. Eid, B. A. Schölkens, and A. J. de Bold. Evidence for load‐dependent and load‐independent determinants of cardiac natriuretic peptide production. Circulation 93: 2059–2067, 1996.
 314. Ogawa, Y., H., Itoh, N. Tamura, S. Suga, T. Yoshimasa, M. Uehira, S. Matsuda, S. Shiono, H. Nishimoto, and K. Nakao. Molecular cloning of the complementary DNA and gene that encode mouse brain natriuretic peptide and generation of transgenic mice that overexpress the brain natriuretic peptide gene. J. Clin. Invest. 93: 1911–1921, 1994.
 315. Ogawa, Y., K., Nakao, M. Mukoyama, K. Hosoda, G. Shirakami, H. Arai, Y. Saito, S. Suga, M. Jougasaki, and H. Imura. Natriuretic peptides as cardiac hormones in normotensive and spontaneously hypertensive rats. The ventricle is a major site of synthesis and secretion of brain natriuretic peptide. Circ. Res. 69: 491–500, 1991.
 316. Oikawa, S., M., Imai, C. Inuzuka, Y. Tawaragi, H. Nakazato, and H. Matsuo. Structure of dog and rabbit precursors of atrial natriuretic polypeptides deduced from nucleotide sequence of cloned cDNA. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 132: 892–899, 1985.
 317. Oikawa, S., M., Imai, A. Ueno, S. Tanaka, T. Noguchi, H. Nakazato, K. Kangawa, A. Fukuda, and H. Matsuo. Cloning and sequence analysis of cDNA encoding a precursor for human atrial natriuretic polypeptide. Nature 309: 724–726, 1984.
 318. Okazaki, T., K., Ando, T. Igarashi, E. Ogata, and T. Fujita. Conserved mechanism of negative gene regulation by extracellular calcium. Parathyroid hormone gene versus atrial natriuretic polypeptide gene. J. Clin. Invest. 89: 1268–1273, 1992.
 319. Onwochei, M. O., and J. P. Rapp. Biochemically stimulated release of atrial natriuretic factor from heart‐lung preparation of Dahl rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 188: 395–404, 1988.
 320. Opgenorth, T. J., J. C. Burnett, Jr., J. P. Granger, and T. A. Scriven. Effects of atrial natriuretic peptide on renin secretion in nonfiltering kidney. Am. J. Physiol. 250 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 19): F798–F801, 1986.
 321. Osol, G., W., Halpern, B. Tesfamariam, K. Nakayama, and D. Weinberg. Synthetic atrial natriuretic factor does not dilate resistance‐sized arteries. Hypertension 8: 606–610, 1986.
 322. Page, E., G. E., Goings, B. Power, and J. Upshaw‐Earley. Ultrastructional features of atrial peptide secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 251 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 20): H340–H348, 1986.
 323. Page, E., G. E., Goings, B. Power, and J. Upshaw‐Earley. Basal and stretch‐augmented natriuretic peptide secretion by quiescent rat atria. Am. J. Physiol. 259 (Cell Physiol. 28): C801–C818, 1990.
 324. Page, E., J., Upshaw‐Earley, and G. Goings. Permeability of rat atrial endocardium, epicardium, and myocardium to large molecules. Stretch‐dependent effects. Circ. Res. 71: 159–173, 1992.
 325. Page, E., J., Upshaw‐Earley, and G. E. Goings. Localization of atrial natriuretic peptide in caveolae of in situ atrial myocytes. Circ. Res. 75: 949–954, 1994.
 326. Page, E., J., Upshaw‐Earley, G. E. Goings, and D. A. Hanck. Inhibition of atrial peptide secretion at different stages of the secretory process: Ca2+ dependence. Am. J. Physiol. 261 (Cell Physiol. 30): C1162–C1172, 1991.
 327. Parker, T. G., K. L., Chow, R. J. Schwartz, and M. D. Schneider. Differential regulation of skeletal alpha‐actin transcription in cardiac muscle by two fibroblast growth factors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 87: 7066–7070, 1990.
 328. Parker, T. G., K. L., Chow, R. J. Schwartz, and M. D. Schneider. TGF‐beta 1 and fibroblast growth factors selectively up‐regulate tissue‐specific fetal genes in cardiac muscle cells. Ciba Found. Symp. 157: 152–160, 1991.
 329. Paul, A. K., R. B., Marala, R. K. Jaiswal, and R. K. Sharma. Coexistence of guanylate cyclase and atrial natriuretic factor receptor in a 180‐kD protein. Science 235: 1224–1226, 1987.
 330. Pegram, B. L., M. B., Kardon, N. C. Trippodo, F. E. Cole, and A. A. MacPhee. Atrial extract: hemodynamics in Wistar‐Kyoto and spontaneously hypertensive rats. Am. J. Physiol. 249 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 18): H265–H271, 1985.
 331. Pegram, B. L., N. C., Trippodo, T. Natsume, M. B. Kardon, E. D. Frohlich, F. E. Cole, and A. A. MacPhee. Hemodynamic effects of atrial natriuretic hormone. Federation Proc. 45: 2382–2386, 1986.
 332. Perrella, M. A., T. R., Schwab, B. O'Murchu, M. M. Redfield, C. M. Wei, B. S. Edwards, and J. C. Burnett, Jr.. Cardiac atrial natriuretic factor during evolution of congestive heart failure. Am. J. Physiol. 262 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 31): H1248–H1255, 1992.
 333. Peters, J. P.. The problems of cardiac edema. Am. J. Med. 12: 66–76, 1952.
 334. Peterson, L. N., C. De Rouffignac, H. Sonnenberg, and D. Z. Levine. Thick ascending limb response to dDAVP and atrial natriuretic factor in vivo. Am J. Physiol. 252 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 21): F374–F381, 1987.
 335. Poche, R.. Elektronenmikroskopische untersuchungen des lipofuscin in Herzmuskel des Menschen. Zentralbl. Allg. Pathol. Pathol. Anat. 96: 395, 1957.
 336. Proudfoot, N. J., and G. G. Brownlee. Sequence at the 3′ end of globin mRNA shows homology with immunoglobulin light chain mRNA. Nature 252: 359–362, 1974.
 337. Raine, A. E., P., Erne, E. Burgisser, F. B. Müller, P. Bolli, F. Burkart, and F. R. Bühler. Atrial natriuretic peptide and atrial pressure in patients with congestive heart failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 315: 533–537, 1986.
 338. Ransone, L. J., and I. M. Verma. Nuclear proto‐oncogenes fos and jun. Annu. Rev. Cell. Biol. 6: 539–557, 1990.
 339. Rhodes, C. J., and P. A. Halban. Newly synthesized proinsulin‐insulin and stored insulin are released from pancreatic B‐cells predominantly via a regulated, rather than constitutive, pathway. J. Cell Biol. 105: 145–153, 1987.
 340. Rocha, A. S., and L. H. Kudo. Atrial peptide and cGMP effects on NaCl transport in inner medullary collecting duct. Am. J. Physiol. 259 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 28): F258–F268, 1990.
 341. Rocha, A. S., and L. H. Kudo. Factors governing sodium and chloride transport across the inner medullary collecting duct. Kidney Int. 38: 654–667, 1990.
 342. Rockman, H. A., R. S., Ross, A. N. Harris, K. U. Knowlton, M. E. Steinhelper, L. J. Field, J. Ross, Jr., and K. R., Chien. Segregation of atrial‐specific and inducible expression of an atrial natriuretic factor transgene in an in vivo murine model of cardiac hypertrophy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88: 8277–8281, 1991.
 343. Rosenzweig, A., T. D., Halazonetis, J. G. Seidman, and C. E. Seidman. Proximal regulatory domains of rat atrial natriuretic factor gene. Circulation 84: 1256–1265, 1991.
 344. Rosenzweig, A., and C. E. Seidman. Atrial natriuretic factor and related peptide hormones. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 60: 229–255, 1991.
 345. Roy, R. N., and T. G. Flynn. Organization of the gene for iso‐rANP, a rat B‐type natriuretic peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 171: 416–423, 1990.
 346. Roy, R. N., S. C., Pang, and T. G. Flynn. Expression of natriuretic peptide genes in cardiac tissues of hypertensive rats. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 86: R1–R5, 1992.
 347. Ruskoaho, H., O., Vakkurio, O. Arjamaa, O. Vuolteenaho, and J. Leppäluoto. Pressor hormones regulate atrial stretch‐induced release of atrial natriuretic peptides in the pithed rat. Circ. Res. 64: 482–492, 1989.
 348. Saavedra, J. M., F. M., Correa, L. M. Plunkett, A. Israel, M. Kurihara, and K. Shigematsu. Binding of angiotensin and atrial natriuretic peptide in brain of hypertensive rats. Nature 320: 758–760, 1986.
 349. Sadoshima, J., and S. Izumo. Molecular characterization of angiotensin II–induced hypertrophy of cardiac myocytes and hyperplasia of cardiac fibroblasts. Critical role of the AT1 receptor subtype. Circ. Res. 73: 413–423, 1993.
 350. Sadoshima, J., L., Jahn, T. Takahashi, T. J. Kulik, and S. Izumo. Molecular characterization of the stretch‐induced adaptation of cultured cardiac cells. An in vitro model of load‐induced cardiac hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 267: 10551–10560, 1992.
 351. Saito, Y., K., Nakao, H. Itoh, et al, Brain natriuretic peptide is a novel cardiac hormone. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 158: 360–368, 1989.
 352. Samson, W. K.. Atrial natriuretic factor inhibits dehydration and hemorrhage‐induced vasopressin release. Neuroendocrinology 40: 277–279, 1985.
 353. Samson, W. K., M. C., Aguila, and R. Bianchi. Atrial natriuretic factor inhibits luteinizing hormone secretion in the rat: evidence for a hypothalamic site of action. Endocrinology 122: 1573–1582, 1988.
 354. Samson, W. K., M. C., Aguila, J. Martinovic, J. Antunes‐Rodrigues, and M. Norris. Hypothalamic action of atrial natriuretic factor to inhibit vasopressin secretion. Peptides 8: 449–454, 1987.
 355. Sano, T., Y., Morishita, Y. Matsuda, and K. Yamada. Pharmacological profile of HS‐142–1, a novel nonpeptide atrial natriuretic peptide antagonist of microbial origin. I. Selective inhibition of the actions of natriuretic peptides in anesthetized rats. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 260: 825–831, 1992.
 356. Sano, T., Y., Morishita, K. Yamada, and Y. Matsuda. Effects of HS‐142–1, a novel non‐peptide ANP antagonist, on diuresis and natriuresis induced by acute volume expansion in anesthetized rats. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 182: 824–829, 1992.
 357. Saper, C. B., M. R., Kibbe, K. M. Hurley, S. Spencer, H. R. Holmes, K. M. Leahy, and P. Needleman. Brain natriuretic peptide‐like immunoreactive innervation of the cardiovascular and cerebrovascular systems in the rat. Circ. Res. 67: 1345–1354, 1990.
 358. Sarda, I. R., and A. J. de Bold, A study on the factors affecting the radioimmunoassay of cardionatrin. In: Biologically Active Atrial Peptides, edited by B. M. Brenner and J. H. Laragh. New York: Raven, 1987, p. 213–215.
 359. Scarborough, R. M., D. D., Schenk, G. A. McEnroe, A. Arfsten, L. Kang, K. Schwartz, and J. A. Lewicki. Truncated atrial natriuretic peptide analogs. Comparison between receptor binding and stimulation of cyclic GMP accumulation in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. J. Biol. Chem. 261: 12960–12964, 1986.
 360. Schenk, D. B., M. N., Phelps, J. G. Porter, F. Fuller, B. Cordell, and J. A. Lewicki. Purification and subunit composition of atrial natriuretic peptide receptor. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84: 1521–1525, 1987.
 361. Schiebinger, R. J. Calcium. its role in isoproterenol‐stimulated atrial natriuretic peptide secretion by superfused rat atria. Circ. Res. 65: 600–606, 1989.
 362. Schiebinger, R. J., M. Z., Baker, and J. Linden. Effect of adrenergic and muscarinic cholinergic agonists on atrial natriuretic peptide secretion by isolated rat atria. Potential role of the autonomic nervous system in modulating atrial natriuretic peptide secretion. J. Clin. Invest. 80: 1687–1691, 1987.
 363. Schiebinger, R. J., and E. J. Cragoe, Jr. Ouabain. A stimulator of atrial natriuretic peptide secretion and its mechanism of action. Circ. Res. 72: 1035–1043, 1993.
 364. Schiebinger, R. J., and C. E. Gomez‐Sanchez. Endothelin: a potent stimulus of atrial natriuretic peptide secretion by super‐fused rat atria and its dependency on calcium. Endocrinology 127: 119–125, 1990.
 365. Schiebinger, R. J., and K. M. Greening. Interaction between stretch and hormonally stimulated atrial natriuretic peptide secretion. Am. J. Physiol. 262 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 31): H78–H83, 1992.
 366. Schiebinger, R. J., and J. Linden. The influence of resting tension on immunoreactive atrial natriuretic peptide secretion by rat atria superfused in vitro. Circ. Res. 59: 105–109, 1986.
 367. Schulz, S., T. D., Chrisman, and D. L. Garbers. Cloning and expression of guanylin. Its existence in various mammalian tissues. J. Biol. Chem. 267: 16019–16021, 1992.
 368. Schulz, S., C. K., Green, P. S. Yuen, and D. L. Garbers. Guanylyl cyclase is a heat‐stable enterotoxin receptor. Cell 63: 941–948, 1990.
 369. Schulz, S., S., Singh, R. A. Bellet, G. Singh, D. J. Tubb, H. Chin, and D. L. Garbers. The primary structure of a plasma membrane guanylate cyclase demonstrates diversity within this new receptor family. Cell 58: 1155–1162, 1989.
 370. Schulz‐Knappe, P., K., Forssmann, F. Herbst, D. Hock, R. Pipkorn, and W. G. Forssmann. Isolation and structural analysis of “urodilatin”, a new peptide of the cardiodilatin‐(ANP)‐family, extracted from human urine. Klin. Wochenschr. 66: 752–759, 1988.
 371. Schunkert, H., L., Jahn, S. Izumo, C. S. Apstein, and B. H. Lorell. Localization and regulation of c‐fos and c‐jun protooncogene induction by systolic wall stress in normal and hypertrophied rat hearts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88: 11480–11484, 1991.
 372. Sciaky, D., N. A., Jenkins, D. J. Gilbert, N. G. Copeland, G. Sonoda, J. R. Testa, and M. B. Cohen. Mapping of guanylin to murine chromosome 4 and human chromosome 1p34–p35. Genomics 26: 427–429, 1995.
 373. Sealey, J. E., J. E., Kirshman, and J. H. Laragh. Natriuretic activity in plasma and urine of salt‐loaded man and sheep. J. Clin. Invest. 48: 2210–2224, 1969.
 374. Sei, C. A., and C. C. Glembotski. Calcium dependence of phenylephrine‐, endothelin‐, and potassium chloride‐stimulated atrial natriuretic factor secretion from long term primary neonatal rat atrial cardiocytes. J. Biol. Chem. 265: 7166–7172, 1990.
 375. Sei, C. A., G. L., Hand, S. F. Murray, and C. C. Glembotski. The cosecretional maturation of atrial natriuretic factor by primary atrial myocytes. Mol. Endocrinol. 6: 309–319, 1992.
 376. Sei, C. A., C. E., Irons, A. B. Sprenkle, P. M. McDonough, J. H. Brown, and C. C. Glembotski. The alpha‐adrenergic stimulation of atrial natriuretic factor expression in cardiac myocytes requires calcium influx, protein kinase C, and calmodulin‐regulated pathways. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 15910–15916, 1991.
 377. Seidah, N. G., J. A., Cromlish, J. Hamelin, G. Thibault, and M. Chretien. Homologous IRCM‐serine protease 1 from pituitary, heart atrium and ventricle: a common pro‐hormone maturation enzyme? Biosci. Rep. 6: 835–844, 1986.
 378. Seidah, N. G., C., Lazure, M. Chretien, et al, Amino acid sequence of homologous rat atrial peptides: natriuretic activity of native and synthetic forms. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81: 2640–2644, 1984.
 379. Seidman, C. E., K. D., Bloch, K. A. Klein, J. A. Smith, and J. C. Seidman. Nucleotide sequences of the human and mouse atrial natriuretic factor genes. Science 226: 1206–1209, 1984.
 380. Seidman, C. E., K. D., Bloch, J. Zisfein, J. A. Smith, E. Haber, C. Homcy, A. D. Duby, E. Choi, R. M. Graham, and J. G. Seidman. Molecular studies of the atrial natriuretic factor gene. Hypertension 7: 131–134, 1985.
 381. Seidman, C. E., A. D., Duby, E. Choi, R. M. Graham, E. Haber, C. Homcy, J. A. Smith, and J. G. Seidman. The structure of rat preproatrial natriuretic factor as defined by a complementary DNA clone. Science 225: 324–326, 1984.
 382. Seidman, C. E., E. V., Schmidt, and J. G. Seidman. cis‐dominance of rat atrial natriuretic factor gene regulatory sequences in transgenic mice. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 69: 1486–1492, 1991.
 383. Seidman, C. E., D. W., Wong, J. A. Jarcho, K. D. Bloch, and J. G. Seidman. cis‐acting sequences that modulate atrial natriuretic factor gene expression. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85: 4104–4108, 1988.
 384. Seilhamer, J. J., A., Arfsten, J. A. Miller, P. Lundquist, R. M. Scarborough, and J. A. Lewicki. Human and canine gene homologs of porcine brain natriuretic peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 165: 650–658, 1989.
 385. Shapiro, J. T., V. M., DeLeonardis, P. Needleman, and T. H. Hintze. Integrated cardiac and peripheral vascular response to atriopeptin 24 in in conscious dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 251 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 20): H1292–H1297, 1986.
 386. Shields, P. P., J. E., Dixon, and C. C. Glembotski. The secretion of atrial natriuretic factor‐(99–126) by cultured cardiac myocytes is regulated by glucocorticoids. J. Biol. Chem. 263: 12619–12628, 1988.
 387. Shields, P. P., and C. C. Glembotski. Regulation of atrial natriuretic factor‐(99–126) secretion from neonatal rat primary atrial cultures by activators of protein kinases A and C. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 9322–9328, 1989.
 388. Shimonaka, M., T., Saheki, H. Hagiwara, M. Ishido, A. Nogi, T. Fujita, K. Wakita, Y. Inada, J. Kondo, and S. Hirose. Purification of atrial natriuretic peptide receptor from bovine lung. Evidence for a disulfide‐linked subunit structure. J. Biol. Chem. 262: 5510–5514, 1987.
 389. Shubeita, H. E., P.M., McDonough, A.N. Harris, K. U. Knowlton, C. C. Glembotski, J. H. Brown, and K. R. Chien. Endothelin induction of inositol phospholipid hydrolysis, sarcomere assembly, and cardiac gene expression in ventricular myocytes. A paracrine mechanism for myocardial cell hypertrophy. J. Biol. Chem. 265: 20555–20562, 1990.
 390. Singhal, P. C., S., DeCandido, J. A. Satriano, D. Schlondorff, and R. M. Hays. Atrial natriuretic peptide and nitroprusside cause relaxation of cultured rat mesangial cells. Am. J. Physiol. 257 (Cell Physiol. 26): C86–C93, 1989.
 391. Skvorak, J. P., S. J., Nazian, and J. R. Dietz. Endothelin acts as a paracrine regulator of stretch‐induced atrial natriuretic peptide release. Am. J. Physiol. 269 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 38): R1093–R1098, 1995.
 392. Smith, H. W.. Salt and water volume receptors. Am. J. Med. 23: 623–652, 1957.
 393. Sonnenberg, H., W. A. Cupples, A. J. de Bold, and A. T. Veress. Intrarenal localization of the natriuretic effect of cardiac atrial extract. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 60: 1149–1152, 1982.
 394. Sonnenberg, H., U., Honrath, C. K. Chong, and D. R. Wilson. Atrial natriuretic factor inhibits sodium transport in medullary collecting duct. Am. J. Physiol. 250 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 19): F963–F966, 1986.
 395. Sonnenberg, H., and A. T. Veress. Cellular mechanism of release of atrial natriuretic factor. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 124: 443–449, 1984.
 396. Sorbera, L. A., and M. Morad. Atrionatriuretic peptide transforms cardiac sodium channels into calcium‐conducting channels. Science 247: 969–973, 1990.
 397. Sprenkle, A. B., S. F., Murray, and C. C. Glembotski. Involvement of multiple cis elements in basal‐ and α‐adrenergic agonist‐inducible atrial natriuretic factor transcription. Roles for serum response elements and an SP‐1‐like element. Circ. Res. 77: 1060–1069, 1995.
 398. Standaert, D. G., D. F., Cechetto, P. Needleman, and C. B. Saper. Inhibition of the firing of vasopressin neurons by atriopeptin. Nature 329: 151–153, 1987.
 399. Stasch, J. P., C., Hirth‐Dietrich, S. Kazda, and D. Neuser. Endothelin stimulates release of atrial natriuretic peptides in vitro and in vivo. Life Sci. 45: 869–875, 1989.
 400. Steardo, L., and J. A. Nathanson. Brain barrier tissues: end organs for atriopeptins. Science 235: 470–473, 1987.
 401. Steinhelper, M. E.. Structure, expression, and genomic mapping of the mouse natriuretic peptide type‐B gene. Circ. Res. 72: 984–992, 1993.
 402. Stepniakowski, K., A., Budzikowski, S. Lon, and E. Szczepanska‐Sadowska. Central ANP attenuates pressor reponses to central AVP in WKY and SHR. Brain Res. Bull. 27: 247–249, 1991.
 403. Stewart, J. M., J., Wang, G. A. Zeballos, M. Ochoa, M. Schustek, and T. H. Hintze. Role of tachycardia and V wave wall stress in the release of ANF during volume loading. Am. J. Physiol. 264 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 33): H217–H223, 1993.
 404. Sudoh, T., K., Kangawa, N. Minamino, and H. Matsuo. A new natriuretic peptide in porcine brain. Nature 332: 78–81, 1988.
 405. Sudoh, T., K., Maekawa, M. Kojima, N. Minamino, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Cloning and sequence analysis of cDNA encoding a precursor for human brain natriuretic peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 159: 1427–1434, 1989.
 406. Sudoh, T., N., Minamino, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. C‐type natriuretic peptide (CNP): a new member of natriuretic peptide family identified in porcine brain. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 168: 863–870, 1990.
 407. Suga, S., K., Nakao, I. Kishimoto, et al, Phenotype‐related alteration in expression of natriuretic peptide receptors in aortic smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res. 71: 34–39, 1992.
 408. Sugawara, M.. Ultrastructural evidence for exocytotic release of atrial natriuretic polypeptide in the rat atrial muscle with the use of the tannic acid method. Biomed. Res. 8: 9–17, 1987.
 409. Sukhatme, V. P., X. M., Cao, L. C. Chang, C. H. Tsai‐Morris, D. Stamenkovich, P. C. Ferreira, D. R. Cohen, S. A. Edwards, T. B. Shows, T. Curran, M. M. Le Beau, and E. D. Adamson. A zinc finger‐encoding gene coregulated with c‐fos during growth and differentiation, and after cellular depolarization. Cell 53: 37–43, 1988.
 410. Suzuki, E., Y., Hirata, O. Kohmoto, T. Sugimoto, H. Hayakawa, H. Matsuoka, M. Kojima, K. Kangawa, N. Minamino, and H. Matsuo. Cellular mechanisms for synthesis and secretion of atrial natriuretic peptide and brain natriuretic peptide in cultured rat atrial cells. Circ. Res. 71: 1039–1048, 1992.
 411. Tadross, O. E., I. R. Sarda, and A. J. de Bold, Relation between atrial‐specific granules and cardionatrin synthesis and storage in the rat. In: Biologically Active Atrial Peptides, edited by B. M. Brenner and J. H. Laragh. New York: Raven, 1987, p. 158–162.
 412. Takahashi, N., A., Calderone, N. J. Izzo, Jr., T. M. Maki, J. D. Marsh, and W. S. Colucci. Hypertrophic stimuli induce transforming growth factor‐beta 1 expression in rat ventricular myocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 94: 1470–1476, 1994.
 413. Takayanagi, R., T., Inagami, R. M. Snajdar, T. Imada, M. Tamura, and K. S. Misono. Two distinct forms of receptors for atrial natriuretic factor in bovine adrenocortical cells. Purification, ligand binding, and peptide mapping. J. Biol. Chem. 262: 12104–12113, 1987.
 414. Takayanagi, R., I., Tanaka, M. Maki, and T. Inagami. Effects of changes in water–sodium balance on levels of atrial natriuretic factor messenger RNA and peptide in rats. Life Sci. 36: 1843–1848, 1985.
 415. Tanaka, I., K. S., Misono, and T. Inagami. Atrial natriuretic factor in rat hypothalamus, atria and plasma: determination by specific radioimmunoassay. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 124: 663–668, 1984.
 416. Tarjan, E., D. A., Denton, and R. S. Weisinger. Atrial natriuretic peptide inhibits water and sodium intake in rabbits. Regul. Pept. 23: 63–75, 1988.
 417. Tawaragi, Y., K., Fuchimura, H. Nakazato, S. Tanaka, N. Minamino, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Gene and precursor structure of porcine C‐type natriuretic peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 172: 627–632, 1990.
 418. Tawaragi, Y., K., Fuchimura, S. Tanaka, N. Minamino, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Gene and precursor structures of human C‐type natriuretic peptide. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 175: 645–651, 1991.
 419. Thibault, G., C., Charbonneau, J. Bilodeau, E. L. Schiffrin, and R. Garcia. Rat brain natriuretic peptide is localized in atrial granules and released into the circulation. Am. J. Physiol. 263 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 32): R301–R309, 1992.
 420. Thibault, G., R., Garcia, M. Cantin, and J. Genest. Atrial natriuretic factor. Characterization and partial purification. Hypertension 5: 175–180, 1983.
 421. Thibault, G., R., Garcia, M. Cantin, J. Genest, C. Lazure, N. G. Seidah, and M. Chretien. Primary structure of a high Mr, form of rat atrial natriuretic factor. FEBS Lett. 167: 352–356, 1984.
 422. Thibault, G., R., Garcia, J. Gutkowska, J. Bilodeau, C. Lazure, N. G. Seidah, M. Chretien, J. Genest, and M. Cantin. The propeptide Asn1‐Tyr126 is the storage form of rat atrial natriuretic factor. Biochem. J. 241: 265–272, 1987.
 423. Thibault, G., R., Garcia, N. G. Seidah, C. Lazure, M. Cantin, M. Chretien, and J. Genest. Purification of three rat atrial natriuretic factors and their amino acid composition. FEBS Lett. 164: 286–290, 1983.
 424. Thibault, G., C., Lazure, M. Chretien, and M. Cantin. Molecular heterogeneity of pro‐atrial natriuretic factor. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 18796–18802, 1989.
 425. Thibault, G., C., Lazure, E. L. Schiffrin, J. Gutkowska, L. Chartier, R. Garcia, N. G. Seidah, M. Chretien, J. Genest, and M. Cantin. Identification of a biologically active circulating form of rat atrial natriuretic factor. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 130: 981–986, 1985.
 426. Thören, P., A. L., Mark, D. A. Morgan, T. P. O'Neill, P. Needleman, and M. J. Brody. Activation of vagal depressor reflexes by atriopeptins inhibits renal sympathetic nerve activity. Am. J. Physiol. 251 (Heart Circ. Physiol. 20): H1252–H1259, 1986.
 427. Thuerauf, D. J., D. S., Hanford, and C. C. Glembotski. Regulation of rat brain natriuretic peptide transcription. A potential role for GATA‐related transcription factors in myocardial cell gene expression. J. Biol. Chem. 269: 17772–17775, 1994.
 428. Tomisawa, M.. Atrial specific granules in various mammals. Arch. Histol. Jpn. 30: 449–465, 1969.
 429. Trippodo, N. C., and R. W. Barbee. Atrial natriuretic factor decreases whole‐body capillary absorption in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 252 (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 21): R915–R920, 1987.
 430. Urbain, R., J. B., Michel, P. Bouveret, C. Wisnewsky, K. Schwartz, and J. J. Mercadier. Left ventricular accumulation of messenger ribonucleic acid coding for the natriuretic atrial factor in various experimental models of cardiac hypertrophy in rats. Arch. Mal. Coeur. 82: 1089–1092, 1989.
 431. Van der Stolpe, A., and R. L. Jamison. Micropuncture study of the effect of ANP on the papillary collecting duct in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 254 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 23): F477–F483, 1988.
 432. Vandlen, R. L., K. E., Arcuri, and M. A. Napier. Identification of a receptor for atrial natriuretic factor in rabbit aorta membranes by affinity cross‐linking. J. Biol. Chem. 260: 10889–10892, 1985.
 433. Van Heugten, H. A. A., K. Bezstarosti, D. H. Dekkers, and J. M. J. Lamers. Homologous desensitization of the endothelin‐1 receptor mediated phosphoinositide response in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. J. Mol. Cell. Cardiol. 25: 41–52, 1993.
 434. Vatta, M., M., Rodriguez‐Fermepin, L. Bianciotti, J. Perazzo, A. Monserrat, and B. Fernandez. Atrial natriuretic factor enhances norepinephrine uptake in circumventricular organs, locus coeruleus and nucleus tractus solitarii of the rat. Neurosci. Lett. 197: 29–32, 1995.
 435. Vesely, D. L.. Peptides from the N‐terminus of the atrial natriuretic factor prohormone enhance guanylate cyclase activity and increase cyclic GMP levels in a wide variety of tissues. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 109: 43–50, 1992.
 436. Vlasuk, G. P., J., Miller, G. H. Bencen, and J. A. Lewicki. Structure and analysis of the bovine atrial natriuretic peptide precursor gene. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 136: 396–403, 1986.
 437. Wang, D. L., J. J., Chen, N. L. Shin, Y. C. Kao, K. H. Hsu, W. Y. Huang, and C. C. Liew. Endothelin stimulates cardiac alpha‐and beta‐myosin heavy chain gene expression. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 183: 1260–1265, 1992.
 438. Wangler, R. D., B. A., Breuhaus, H. O. Orero, D. A. Hastings, M. D. Holzman, H. H. Saneii, Jr., H. V. Sparks, and J. E. Chimoskey. Coronary vasoconstrictor effects of atriopeptin II. Science 230: 558–561, 1985.
 439. Wei, Y. F., C. P., Rodi, M. L. Day, R. C. Wiegand, L. D. Needleman, B. R. Cole, and P. Needleman. Developmental changes in the rat atriopeptin hormonal system. J. Clin. Invest. 79: 1325–1329, 1987.
 440. Weidmann, P., B., Hellmueller, D. E. Uehlinger, R. E. Lang, M. P. Gnaedinger, L. Hasler, S. Shaw, and C. Bachmann. Plasma levels and cardiovascular, endocrine, and excretory effects of atrial natriuretic peptide during different sodium intakes in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62: 1027–1036, 1986.
 441. Weir, M. L., U., Honrath, T. G. Flynn, and H. Sonnenberg. Lack of biologic activity or specific binding of amino‐terminal pro‐ANP segments in the rat. Regul. Pept. 53: 111–122, 1994.
 442. Weisinger, R. S., J. R., Blair‐West, D. A. Denton, and E. Tarjan. Central administration of atrial natriuretic peptide suppresses sodium and water intake of sheep. Brain Res. 579: 113–118, 1992.
 443. Wiedemann, K., L., Herzog, and M. Kellner. Atrial natriuretic hormone inhibits corticotropin‐releasing hormone–induced prolactin release in man. J. Psychiatr. Res. 29: 51–58, 1995.
 444. Wildey, G. M., A. J., Fischman, M. N. Margolies, R. M. Graham, and C. J. Homcy. Phosphorylation state of pro‐atrial natriuretic factor in rat atrial secretory granules. Endocrinology 127: 2839–2848, 1990.
 445. Winquist, R. J., E. P., Faison, S. A. Waldman, K. Schwartz, F. Murad, and R. M. Rapoport. Atrial natriuretic factor elicits an endothelium‐independent relaxation and activates particulate guanylate cyclase in vascular smooth muscle. Pro. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81: 7661–7664, 1984.
 446. Winquist, R. J., A. L., Scott, and G. P. Vlasuk. Enhanced release of atrial natriuretic factor by endothelin in atria from hypertensive rats. Hypertension 14: 111–114, 1989.
 447. Wong, N. L., E. F., Wong, G. H. Au, and D. C. Hu. Effect of alpha‐ and beta‐adrenergic stimulation on atrial natriuretic peptide release in vitro. Am. J. Physiol. 255 (Endocrinol. Metab. 18): E260–E264, 1988.
 448. Wu, J., M. C., LaPointe, B. L. West, and D. G. Gardner. Tissue‐specific determinants of human atrial natriuretic factor gene expression in cardiac tissue. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 6472–6479, 1989.
 449. Wu, J. P., C. F., Deschepper, and D. G. Gardner. Perinatal expression of the atrial natriuretic factor gene in rat cardiac tissue. Am. J. Physiol. 255 (Endocrinol. Metab. 18): E388–E396, 1988.
 450. Wu, J. P., B., Kovacic‐Milivojevic, M. C. LaPointe, K. Nakamura, and D. G. Gardner. cis‐active determinants of cardiac‐specific expression in the human atrial natriuretic peptide gene. Mol. Endocrinol. 5: 1311–1322, 1991.
 451. Wypij, D. M., and R. B. Harris. Atrial granules contain an amino‐terminal processing enzyme of atrial natriuretic factor. J. Biol. Chem. 263: 7079–7086, 1988.
 452. Wypij, D. M., and R. B. Harris. Characterization of homogeneous atrial granule serine proteinase, a candidate processing enzyme of pro‐atrial natriuretic factor. Life Sci. 50: 523–531, 1992.
 453. Yamaguchi, H., M., Nakazato, M. Miyazato, K. Kangawa, H. Matsuo, and S. Matsukura. Two novel rat guanylin molecules, guanylin‐94 and guanylin‐16, do not increase cyclic GMP production in T84 cells. Biochem., Biophys. Res. Commun. 214: 1204–1210, 1995.
 454. Yamanaka, M., B., Greenberg, L. Johnson, J. Seilhamer, M. Brewer, T. Friedeman, J. Miller, S. Atlas, J. Laragh, J. Lewicki, and J. Fiddes. Cloning and sequence analysis of the cDNA for the rat atrial natriuretic factor precursor. Nature 309: 719–722, 1984.
 455. Yokota, N., M., Aburaya, Y. Yamamoto, J. Kato, K. Kitamura, O. Kida, T. Eto, N. Minamino, K. Kangawa, H. Matsuo, and K. Tonaka. Increased plasma brain natriuretic peptide levels in DOCA‐salt hypertensive rats: relation to blood pressure and cardiac concentration. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 173: 632–638, 1990.
 456. Yokota, N., B. G., Bruneau, B. E. Fernandez, M. L. Kuroski‐de Bold, L. A. Piazza, H. Eid, and A. J. de Bold. Dissociation of cardiac hypertrophy, myosin heavy chain isoform expression, and natriuretic peptide production in DOCA‐salt rats. Am. J. Hypertens. 8: 301–310, 1995.
 457. Yokota, N., B. G. Bruneau, M. L. Kuroski‐de Bold, and A. J. de Bold. Atrial natriuretic factor significantly contributes to the mineralocorticoid escape phenomenon. Evidence for a guanylate cyclase–mediated pathway. J. Clin. Invest. 94: 1938–1946, 1994.
 458. Yukimura, T., K., Ito, T. Takenaga, K. Yamamoto, K. Kangawa, and H. Matsuo. Renal effects of a synthetic alpha‐human atrial natriuretic polypeptide (alpha‐hANP) in anesthetized dogs. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 103: 363–366, 1984.
 459. Yunge, L., S., Benchimol, and M. Cantin. Ultrastructural cytochemistry of atrial muscle cells. VIII Radioautographic study of synthesis and migration of proteins. Cell Tissue Res. 207: 1–11, 1980.
 460. Yutzey, K. E., and D. Bader. Diversification of cardiomyogenic cell lineages during early heart development. Circ. Res. 77: 216–219, 1995.
 461. Zeller, R., K. D., Bloch, B. S. Williams, R. J. Arceci, and C. E. Seidman. Localized expression of the atrial natriuretic factor gene during cardiac embryogenesis. Genes Dev. 1: 693–698, 1987.
 462. Zhou, M. D., H. M., Sucov, R. M. Evans, and K. R. Chien. Retinoid‐dependent pathways suppress myocardial cell hypertrophy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 92: 7391–7395, 1995.
 463. Zimmerman, R. S., J. A., Schirger, B. S. Edwards, T. R. Schwab, D. M. Heublein, and J. C. Burnett, Jr. Cardio–renal–endocrine dynamics during stepwise infusion of physiologic and pharmacologic concentrations of atrial natriuretic factor in the dog. Circ. Res. 61: 63–69, 1987.
 464. Zivin, R. A., J. H., Condra, R. A. Dixon, N. G. Seidah, M. Chretien, M. Nemer, M. Chamberland, and J. Drouin. Molecular cloning and characterization of DNA sequences encoding rat and human atrial natriuretic factors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 81: 6325–6329, 1984.
 465. Zongazo, M. A., A., Carayon, F. Masson, G. Maistre, E. Noe, J. Eurin, C. Barthelemy, M. Komajda, and J. C. Legrand. Effects of arginine vasopressin and extracellular osmolarity on atrial natriuretic peptide release by superfused rat atria. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 209: 45–55, 1991.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Natriuretic Peptides
 

How to Cite

Adolfo J. De Bold, Benoit G. Bruneau. Natriuretic Peptides. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 22: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, Endocrine Regulation of Water and Electrolyte Balance: 377-409. First published in print 2000. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp070310