Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Hormonal Regulation of Growth and Development of Nonmammalian Vertebrates

Charles S. Nicoll, Buel D. Rodgers, Kevin M. Kelley

10.1002/cphy.cp070503

Source: Supplement 24: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, Hormonal Control of Growth

Originally published: 1999

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 The Growth Hormone–Prolactin Family of Hormones
1.1 Prolactin
1.2 Growth Hormone
2 Insulin and Insulin‐Like Growth Factors
2.1 Insulin
2.2 Growth Hormone/Insulin‐Like Growth Factor System
2.3 Insulin‐Like Growth Factor‐Binding Proteins
2.4 The Insulin‐Like Growth Factor–Binding Protein/lnsulin‐Like Growth Factor
3 Thyroid Hormones
3.1 Metamorphosis
3.2 Smoltification
4 Catabolic Hormones
5 Influence of Maternal Factors
6 Conclusions
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Effects of thyroxine (T4) and growth hormone (GH) replacement on skeletal growth (that is, tail length increase) and bodyweight gain in hypophysectomized (HX) rat pups. Animals were hypophysectomized on day 6 postpartum and treated with hormone or saline from day 7 to day 15. Growth hormone was given at a dose of 4μg/ g body weight/day and T4 was given at 100 ng/g/day for 4 days and then at 8 ng/g/day for the next 4‐day period. Data are expressed as the change in measured value from the HX saline‐treated control values as a percent of the growth of intact control animals.

From Glasscock and Nicoll 109
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Developmental changes and serum thyroxine (T4) concentration in bullfrog tadpoles. The decrease in tail length during metamorphic climax is a quantitative measure of the regression of larval structures during metamorphosis, and the growth of the hindleg reflects the development of an adult structure. Note that the “surge” in T4 is followed soon by rapid regression of the tail. The developmental stages are shown in Arabic, rather than Roman, numerals.

See White and Nicoll 292 for the original sources of these data
Figure 3. Figure 3.

As in Figure 2 but changes in serum concentrations of prolactin (PRL) and corticosterone (B) are also shown. Note that the rise in serum B concentration coincides with that of thyroxine (T4), and that PRL rises after the animal has made significant progress through climax.

See Dickhoff 68 and White and Nicoll 292 for original sources of these data
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Changes in plasma concentrations of thyroxine (T4), growth hormone (GM), and cortisol (F) during the parr to smolt transformation of coho salmon.

See Dickhoff 68 for original sources of these data


Figure 1.

Effects of thyroxine (T4) and growth hormone (GH) replacement on skeletal growth (that is, tail length increase) and bodyweight gain in hypophysectomized (HX) rat pups. Animals were hypophysectomized on day 6 postpartum and treated with hormone or saline from day 7 to day 15. Growth hormone was given at a dose of 4μg/ g body weight/day and T4 was given at 100 ng/g/day for 4 days and then at 8 ng/g/day for the next 4‐day period. Data are expressed as the change in measured value from the HX saline‐treated control values as a percent of the growth of intact control animals.

From Glasscock and Nicoll 109


Figure 2.

Developmental changes and serum thyroxine (T4) concentration in bullfrog tadpoles. The decrease in tail length during metamorphic climax is a quantitative measure of the regression of larval structures during metamorphosis, and the growth of the hindleg reflects the development of an adult structure. Note that the “surge” in T4 is followed soon by rapid regression of the tail. The developmental stages are shown in Arabic, rather than Roman, numerals.

See White and Nicoll 292 for the original sources of these data


Figure 3.

As in Figure 2 but changes in serum concentrations of prolactin (PRL) and corticosterone (B) are also shown. Note that the rise in serum B concentration coincides with that of thyroxine (T4), and that PRL rises after the animal has made significant progress through climax.

See Dickhoff 68 and White and Nicoll 292 for original sources of these data


Figure 4.

Changes in plasma concentrations of thyroxine (T4), growth hormone (GM), and cortisol (F) during the parr to smolt transformation of coho salmon.

See Dickhoff 68 for original sources of these data
References
 1. Adachi, T., S. Takiya, Y. Suzuki, M. Iwami, A. Kawakami, S. Y. Takahashi, H. Ishizaki, H. Nagasawa, and A. Suzuki. cDNA structure and expression of bombyxin, an insulin‐like brain secretory peptide of the silkmoth Bombyx mori. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 7681–7685, 1989.
 2. Agellon, L. B., S. L. Davies, T. T. Chen, and D. A. Powers. Structure of a fish (rainbow trout) growth hormone gene and its evolutionary implications. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 5136–5140, 1988.
 3. Agellon, L. B., S. L. Davies, C. M. Lin, T. T. Chen, and D. A. Powers. Rainbow trout has two genes for growth hormone. Mol. Reprod. Dev. 1: 11–17, 1988.
 4. Anderson, T. A., L. R. Bennett, M. A. Conlon, and P. C. Owens. Immunocreative and receptor‐active insulin‐like growth factor‐I (IGF‐I) and IGF‐binding protein in blood plasma from the freshwater fish Maquaria ambigua (golden perch). J. Endocrinol. 136: 191–198, 1993.
 5. Anderson, T. R., G. L. Mayer, N. Hebert, and C. S. Nicoll. Interactions among prolactin, epidermal growth factor, and proinsulin on the growth and morphology of the pigeon cropsac mucosal epithelium in vivo. Endocrinology 120: 1258–1264, 1987.
 6. Anderson, T. R., D. S. Pitts, and C. S. Nicoll. Prolactin's mitogenic action on the pigeon crop‐sac mucosal epithelium involves direct and indirect mechanisms. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 54: 236–246, 1984.
 7. Araki, E., B. R. Haag, K. Matsuda, M. Shichiri, and C. R. Kahn. Characterization and regulation of the mouse insulin receptor substrate gene promoter. Mol. Endocrinol. 9: 1367–1379, 1995.
 8. Arany, E., A. J. Strain, M. J. Hube, I. D. Phillips, and D. J. Hill. Interactive effects of nutrients and hormones on the expression of insulin‐like growth factor binding protein‐1 (IGFBP‐1) mRNA and peptide, and IGF I release from isolated adult rat hepatocytes. J. Cell. Physiol. 155: 426–435, 1993.
 9. Atkinson, B. G. Metamorphosis: model systems for studying gene expression in postembryonic development. Dev. Genet. 15: 313–319, 1994.
 10. Baker, B. S., J. P. Liu, E. J. Robertson, and A. Efstratiadis. Role of insulin‐like growth factors in embryogenic and postnatal growth. Cell 75: 73–82, 1993.
 11. Baker, B. S., and J. R. Tata. Prolactin prevents the autoinduction of thyroid hormone receptor mRNAs during amphibian metamorphosis. Devl. Biol. 149: 463–467, 1992.
 12. Bala, R. M., H. G. Bohnet, J. N. Carter, and H. G. Friesen. Effect of ovine prolactin on serum somatomedin bioactivity in hypophysectomized female rats. Can. J. Pharmacol. 56: 984–987, 1977.
 13. Barlow, D. P., R. Stoger, B. G. Herrmann, K. Saito, and N. Schweifer. The mouse insulin‐like growth factor type‐2 receptor is imprinted and closely linked to the Time locus. Nature 349: 84–87, 1991.
 14. Baron, J., Z. Huang, K. E. Oerter, J. D. Bacher, and G. J. Cutler. Dexamethasone acts locally to inhibit longitudinal bone growth in rabbits. Am. J. Physiol. 263 (Endocrinol. Metab. 26): E498–E492, 1992.
 15. Baxter, R. C. Insulin‐like growth factor binding proteins in the human circulation, a review. Horm. Res. 42: 140–144, 1994.
 16. Beckman, B. R., D. A. Larsen, S. Moriyama, B. Lee‐Pawlak, and W. W. Dickhoff. Insulin‐like growth factor‐I and environmental modulation of growth during smoltification of spring chinook salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawystscha). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 109: 325–335, 1998.
 17. Bern, H. A. Endocrinology unlimited: comments on the modern biology of chemical mediation. Verh. Dtsch. Ges. Zool. 87: 51–58, 1994.
 18. Bern, H. A., S. D. McCormick, K. M. Kelley, E. S. Gray, R. S. Nishioka, S. S. Madsen, and P. I. Tsai. Insulin‐like growth factors “under water”: role in growth and function of fish and other poikilothermic vertebrates. In: Modern Concepts of Insulin‐like Growth Factors, edited by E. M. Spencer. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1991, p. 85–96.
 19. Bern, H. A., and R. S. Nishioka. Aspects of salmonid endocrinology: the known and the unknown. Bull. Fac. Fish. Hokkaido Univ. 44: 55–67, 1993.
 20. Bewley, T. A., and C. H. Li. Primary structures of human pituitary growth hormone and sheep pituitary lactogenic hormone compared. Science 168: 1361–1362, 1970.
 21. Bingham, B., E. R. Oldham, and W. R. Baumbach. Regulation of growth hormone receptor and binding protein expression in domestic species. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 206: 195–199, 1994.
 22. Blahos, J., A. D. Care, and J. Fox. The effects of betamethasone, low calcium and low phosphorus diets on growth in chicks. Horm. Metab. Res. 15: 554–557, 1983.
 23. Boeuf, G. Salmonid smolting: a pre‐adaptation to the oceanic environment. In: Fish Ecophysiology, edited by J. C. Rankin and F. B. Jensen. London: Chapman & Hall, 1993, p. 105–135.
 24. Brahma, K. C., B. D. Dash, T. C. Kara, and B. K. Patnaik. Effect of prolactin and thyroid stimulating hormone on growth, collagen characteristics and tissue protein contents of young male garden lizard Calotes versicolor. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 18: 1505–1507, 1980.
 25. Braulke, T., C. Korner, O. Rosorius, and B. Nurnberg. Signal structures on the mannose‐6‐phosphate/IGF‐II receptor. In: The Insulin‐like Growth Factors and Their Regulatory Proteins, edited by R. C. Baxter, P. D. Gluckman, and R. G. Rosenfeld. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1994, p. 117–130.
 26. Brown, C. L., and J. M. Nunez. Hormone actions and applications in embryogenesis. In: Perspectives in Comparative Endocrinology, edited by K. G. Davey, R. R. Peter, and S. S. Tobe. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, 1994, p. 333–339.
 27. Brown, D. D., Z. Wang, A Kanamori, B. Eliceiri, J. D. Furlow, and R. Schwartzman. Amphibian metamorphosis: a complex program of gene expression changes controlled by the thyroid hormone. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 50: 309–315, 1995.
 28. Burke, W. H., F. T. Shultz, and S. W. Bielfelt. The role of plasma growth hormone, prolactin, triiodothyronine and tetraiodothyronine in the regulation of growth and sex differences in body weight of turkeys. Growth Dev. Aging 58: 167–185, 1994.
 29. Canalis, E. Effect of glucocorticoids on type I collagen synthesis, alkaline phosphatase activity, and deoxyribonucleic acid content in cultured rat calvariae. Endocrinology 112: 931–939, 1983.
 30. Canfield, W. M., and S. Kornfeld. The chicken liver cation‐independent mannose‐6‐phosphate receptor lacks the high affinity binding site for insulin‐like growth factor‐II. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 7100–7103, 1989.
 31. Cao, Q.‐P., S. J. Duguay, E. M. Plisetskaya, D. F. Steiner, and S. J. Chan. Nucleotide sequence and growth hormone‐regulated expression of salmon insulin‐like growth factor I mRNA. Mol. Endocrinol. 3: 2005–2010, 1989.
 32. Chan, K. C., and C. S. Nicoll. Characterization of rat serum insulin‐like growth factor‐binding proteins by two‐dimensional gel electrophoresis: identification of a potentially novel form. Endocrinology 134: 2574–2580, 1994.
 33. Chan, S. J., Q.‐P. Cao, and D. F. Steiner. Evolution of the insulin superfamily: cloning of a hybrid insulin/insulin‐like growth factor cDNA from Amphioxus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87: 9319–9323, 1990.
 34. Chan, S. J., S. O. Emdin, S. C. M. Kwok, J. M. Kramer, S. Falkmer, and D. F. Steiner. Messenger RNA sequence and primary sequence structure of preproinsulin in a primitive vertebrate, the Atlantic hagfish. J. Biol. Chem. 256: 7595–7602, 1981.
 35. Cheatham, B., and C. R. Kahn. Insulin action and the insulin signaling network. Endocr. Rev. 16: 117–142, 1995.
 36. Chen, C., J. Jack, and R. S. Garofalo. The Drosophila insulin receptor is required for normal growth. Endocrinology 137: 846–856, 1996.
 37. Chen, J. Y., H. L. Tsai, C. Y. Chang, J. I. Wang, S. C. Shen, and J. L. Wu. Isolation and characterization of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) insulin‐like growth factors gene and proximal promoter region. DNA Cell Biol. 17: 359–376, 1998.
 38. Chen, T. T., K. Kight, C. M. Lin, D. A. Powers, M. Hayat, N. Chatakondi, A. C. Ramboux, P. L. Duncan, and R. A. Dunham. Expression and inheritance of RSVLTR‐rtGH1 complementary DNA in the transgenic common carp, Cyprinus carpio. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 2: 88–95, 1993.
 39. Cheng, C. M., and T. T. Chen. Synergism of GH and IGF‐I in stimulation of sulphate uptake by teleostean branchial cartilage in vitro. J. Endocrinol. 147: 67–73, 1995.
 40. Chiu, K. W., M. S. Leung, and P. F. A. Maderson. Thyroid and skin‐shedding in the rat snake (Ptyas korros). J. Exp. Zool. 225: 407–410, 1983.
 41. Clairmont, K. B., and M. P. Czech. Chicken and Xenopus mannose‐6‐phosphate receptors fail to bind insulin‐like growth factor II. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 16390–16392, 1989.
 42. Clemmons, D., L. Underwood, E. Ridgway, B. Kliman, and J. Van Wyk. Hyperprolactinemia is associated with increased immunoreactive somatomedin C in hypopituitarism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 52: 731–737, 1981.
 43. Clemons, G. K. Development and preliminary application of a homologous radioimmunoassay for bullfrog growth hormone. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 30: 357–363, 1976.
 44. Clemons, G. K., and C. S. Nicoll. Development and preliminary application of a homologous radioimmunoassay for bullfrog prolactin. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 32: 531–535, 1977.
 45. Cooke, P. S., and C. S. Nicoll. Hormonal regulation of fetal growth. In: Handbook of Human Growth and Development. Growth, Nutrition, and Metabolism, edited by E. Meisami and P. S. Timiras. Boca Raton, FL: CRC vol. II, pt. B, 1989, p. 3–22.
 46. Cooke, P. S., C. U. Yonemura, and C. S. Nicoll. Development of thyroid hormone dependence for growth in the rat: a study involving transplanted fetal, neonatal, and juvenile tissues. Endocrinology 115: 2059–2064, 1984.
 47. Cramer, S. D., and F. Talamantes. The growth hormone receptor and growth hormone–binding protein: structure, functions, and regulation. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 117–149.
 48. Czech, M. Signal transduction by the insulin‐like growth factors. Cell 59: 235–238, 1989.
 49. Daughaday, W. H., K. Hall, M. S. Raben, W. J. Salmon, J. L. van den Brande, and J. Van Wyk. Somatomedin: proposed designation for sulphation factor. Nature 235: 107, 1972.
 50. Davis, S. L., M. Graf, C. A. Morrison, T. R. Hall, and P. J. Swift. Identification and partial purification of serum growth hormone binding protein in domestic animal species. J. Anim. Sci. 70: 773–780, 1992.
 51. De Chiara, T. M., A. Efstratiadis, and E. J. Robertson. A growth‐deficiency phenotype in heterozygous mice carrying an insulin‐like growth factor II gene disrupted by targeting. Nature 345: 78–80, 1990.
 52. de Jesus, E. G., T. Hirano, and Y. Inui. Changes in Cortisol and thyroid hormone concentrations during early development and metamorphosis in the Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 82: 369–376, 1991.
 53. de Jesus, E. G., T. Hirano, and Y. Inui. The antimetamorphic effect of prolactin in the Japanese flounder. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 93: 44–50, 1994.
 54. de Jesus, E., Y. Inui, and T. Hirano. Cortisol enhances the stimulating action of thyroid hormones on dorsal finray resorption of flounder larvae in vitro. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 79: 167–173, 1990.
 55. Delahunty, G., C. Jedrick, and A. Jedlicka. Insulin‐like growth factor‐I and insulin‐like growth factor‐binding protein in the channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus. In: Proc. 11th Int. Symp. Pish Endocrinol. (St. Malo). 1993, L58 (abstract).
 56. Delany, A. M., Y. Dong, and E. Canalis. Mechanisms of glucocorticoid action in bone cells. J. Cell. Biochem. 56: 295–302, 1994.
 57. Delidow, B. C. Reevaluation of the effects of growth hormone and prolactin on anuran tadpole growth and development. J. Exp. Zool. 249: 279–283, 1989.
 58. Delidow, B. C., N. Hebert, S. Steiny, and C. S. Nicoll. Secretion of prolactin‐synergizing activity (synlactin) by the liver of ectothermic vertebrates in vitro. J. Exp. Zool. 238: 147–153, 1986.
 59. Dent, J. N. Hormonal interaction in amphibian metamorphosis. Am. Zool. 28: 297–308, 1975.
 60. Denver, R. J. Several hypothalamic peptides stimulate in vitro thyrotropin secretion by pituitaries of anuran amphibians. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 72: 383–393, 1988.
 61. Denver, R. J. Neuroendocrine control of amphibian metamorphosis. In: Metamorphosis: Post‐Embryonic Reprogramming of Gene Expression in Amphibian and Insect Cells, edited by L. I. Gilbert, J. R. Tata, and B. G. Atkinson. San Diego: Academic, 1996, p. 433–464.
 62. Denver, R. J., and P. Licht. Dependence of body growth on thyroid activity in turtles. J. Exp. Zool. 258: 48–59, 1991.
 63. Denver, R. J., and C. S. Nicoll. Pancreatic hormones differentially regulate insulin‐like growth factor (IGF)‐I and IGF‐binding protein production by primary rat hepatocytes. J. Endocrinol. 142: 299–310, 1994.
 64. de Pablo, F., S. A. Chambers, and A. Ota. Insulin‐related molecules and insulin effects in the sea urchin embryo. Dev. Biol. 130: 304–310, 1988.
 65. de Pablo, F., R. Dashner, A. R. Shuldiner, and J. Roth. Xenopus laevis oocytes, eggs and tadpoles contain immunoactive insulin. J. Endocrinol. 141: 123–129, 1994.
 66. de Pablo, F., L. A. Scott, and J. Roth. Insulin and insulin‐like growth factor I in early development: peptides, receptors and biological events. Endocr. Rev. 11: 558–577, 1990.
 67. D'Ercole, A. J. The insulin‐like growth factors and in utero growth. Growth Genet. Horm. 8: 1–5, 1992.
 68. Dickhoff, W. W. Hormones, metamorphosis, and smolting. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 519–540.
 69. Dimond, M. T. The reactions of developing snapping turtles, Chelydra serpentina serpentina (linne), to thiourea. J. Exp. Zool. 127: 93–115, 1954.
 70. Donaldson, E. M., U. H. M. Fagerlund, D. A. Higgs, and J. R. McBride. Hormonal enhancement of growth. In: Fish Physiology. Bioenergetics and Growth, edited by W. S. Hoar, D. J. Randall, and J. R. Brett. New York: Academic, 1979, vol. VIII, p. 455–597.
 71. Drakenberg, K., V. R. Sara, K. J. Lindahl, and B. Kewish. The study of insulin‐like growth factors in tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 74: 173–180, 1989.
 72. Du, S. J., Z. Y. Gong, G. L. Fletcher, M. A. Shears, M. J. King, D. R. Idler, and C. L. Hew. Growth enhancement in transgenic Atlantic salmon by the use of an “all fish” chimeric growth hormone gene construct. Biotechnology 10: 176–181, 1992.
 73. Duan, C. Nutritional and developmental regulation of insulinlike growth factors in fish. J. Nutr. 128 (Suppl): 306S–314S, 1998.
 74. Duan, C., and T. Hirano. Effects of insulin‐like growth factor‐I and insulin on the in‐vitro uptake of sulphate by eel branchial cartilage: evidence for the presence of independent hepatic and pancreatic sulphation factors. J. Endocrinol. 133: 211–219, 1992.
 75. Duan, C. M., and Y. Inui. Effects of recombinant eel growth hormone on the uptake of [35S] sulfate by ceratobranchial cartilages of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 79: 320–325, 1990.
 76. Duan, C. M., and Y. Inui. Evidences for the presence of a somatomedin‐like plasma factor(s) in the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 79: 326–331, 1990.
 77. Duan, C., and E. M. Plisetskaya. Nutritional regulation of insulin‐like growth factor‐I mRNA expression in salmon tissues. J. Endocrinol. 139: 243–252, 1993.
 78. Duan, C., E. M. Plisetskaya, and W. W. Dickhoff. Expression of insulin‐like growth factor I in normally and abnormally developing coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Endocrinology 136: 446–452, 1995.
 79. Duguay, S. J., S. J. Chan, T. P. Mommsen, and D. F. Steiner. Divergence of insulin‐like growth factors I and II in the elasmobranch, Squalus acanthias. FEBS Lett. 371: 69–72, 1995.
 80. Duguay, S. J., J. Lai‐Zhang, D. F. Steiner, B. Funkenstein, and S. J. Chan. Developmental and tissue‐regulated expression of IGF‐I and IGF‐II mRNAs in Sparus aurata. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 16: 123–132, 1996.
 81. Duguay, S. J., P. Swanson, and W. W. Dickhoff. Differential expression and hormonal regulation of alternatively spliced IGF‐I mRNA transcripts in salmon. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 12: 25–37, 1994.
 82. Dunham, R. A., A. C. Ramboux, P. L. Duncan, M. Hayat, T. T. Chen, C. M. Lin, K. Kight, V. I. Gonzalez, and D. A. Powers. Transfer, expression, and inheritance of salmonid growth hormone genes in channel catfish, Ictalurus punctatus, and effects on performance traits. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 1: 380–389, 1992.
 83. Elliott, W. M., and J. H. Youson. Development of the adult endocrine pancreas during metamorphosis in the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus L. II. Electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry. Anat. Rec. 237: 271–290, 1993.
 84. Emdin, S. O. Effects of hagfish insulin in the Atlantic hagfish, Myxine glutinosa. The in vivo metabolism of [14 C]glucose and [14 C]leucine and studies on starvation and glucose‐loading. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 47: 414–425, 1981.
 85. English, D. E., C. L. Barnum, S. M. Russell, and C. S. Nicoll. Hypophysectomy partially restores the responsiveness of diabetic rats to growth hormone: further evidence of dissociation between growth responses and serum IGF‐I concentration. Endocr. J. 1: 73–78, 1993.
 86. English, D. E., S. M. Russell, L. S. Katz, and C. S. Nicoll. Evidence for a role of the liver in the mammotrophic action of prolactin. Endocrinology 136: 2252–2256, 1990.
 87. Epple, A., and J. Brinn. The comparative physiology of the pancreatic islets. In: Vertebrate Endocrinology: Fundamentals and Implications, edited by P. K. T. Pang and M. P. Schreibman. New York: Academic, 1986, vol. 1, p. 279–317.
 88. Epple, A., M. H. Cake, J. C. Potter, and M. Tajbakhsh. Impact of complete isletectomy on plasma glucose in the southern hemisphere lamprey, Geotria australis. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 86: 284–288, 1992.
 89. Etkin, W. Metamorphosis. In: Physiology of the Amphibia, edited by J. A. Moore. New York: Academic, 1964, p. 427–468.
 90. Falkmer, S. Comparative morphology of pancreatic islets in animals. In: The Diabetic Pancreas, edited by B. W. Volk and E. R. Arquilla. New York: Plenum, 1985, p. 7–52.
 91. Falkmer, S., J. F. Cutfield, S. M. Cutfield, G. G. Dodson, J. Gliemann, S. Gammeltoft, M. Marques, J. D. Peterson, D. F. Steiner, F. Sundby, S. O. Emdin, N. Havu, Y. Ostberg, and L. Winbladh. Comparative endocrinology of insulin and glucagon production. Am. Zool. 15: 255–270, 1975.
 92. Falkmer, S., and A. J. Matty. Blood sugar regulation in the hagfish, Myxine glutinosa. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 6: 334–346, 1966.
 93. Farmer, S. W., and H. Papkoff. Comparative biochemistry of pituitary growth hormone, prolactin and the glycoprotein hormones. In: Hormones and Evolution, edited by E. J. W. Barrington. London: Academic, 1979, vol. 2, p. 525–559.
 94. Fielder, P. J., G. Thordarson, F. Talamantes, and R. G. Rosenfeld. Characterization of insulin‐like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBPs) during gestation in mice: effects of hypophysectomy and an IGFBP specific serum protease activity. Endocrinology 127: 2270–2280, 1990.
 95. Fernandez, A. R., and O. M. Rosen. Structure and ligand specificity of the Drosophila melanogaster insulin receptor. Mol. Cell. Biol. 7: 2718–2727, 1987.
 96. Fernandez, R., D. Tabarini, N. Azpiazu, M. Frasch, and J. Schlessinger. The Drosophila insulin receptor homolog: a gene essential for embryonic development encodes two receptor isoforms with different signaling potential. EMBO J. 14: 3373–3384, 1995.
 97. Foster, A. R., D. F. Houlihan, C. Gray, F. Medale, B. Fauconneau, S. J. Kaushik, and B. P. Le. The effects of ovine growth hormone on protein turnover in rainbow trout. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 82: 111–120, 1991.
 98. Francis, M. J. O., and D. J. Hill. Prolactin‐stimulated production of somatomedin by rat liver. Nature 255: 167–168, 1974.
 99. Fukuzawa, Y., K. Siharath, T. Iguchi, and H. A. Bern. In vitro secretion of insulin‐like growth factor‐binding proteins from liver of striped bass, Morone saxatilis. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 99: 239–247, 1995.
 100. Funkenstein, B., and I. Cohen. Ontogeny of growth hormone protein and mRNA in the gilthead sea bream Sparus aurata. Growth Regul. 6: 16–21, 1996.
 101. Funkenstein, B., R. Shemer, R. Amuly, I. Cohen, and S. J. Chan. Nucleotide sequence of the promoter region of Sparus aurata insulin‐like growth factor‐I gene and expression of IGF‐I in eggs and embryos. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 5: 43–51, 1996.
 102. Funkenstein, B., A. Tandler, and B. Cavari. Developmental expression of the growth hormone gene in the gilthead sea bream Sparus aurata. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 87: r7–r9, 1992.
 103. Galton, V. A. The role of thyroid hormone in amphibian development. Am. Zool. 28: 309–318, 1988.
 104. Galton, V. A. Mechanisms underlying the acceleration of thyroid hormone‐induced tadpole metamorphosis by corticosterone. Endocrinology 127: 2997–3002, 1990.
 105. Galton, V. A., J. C. Davey, and M.J. Schneider. Mechanisms of thyroid hormone action in developing Rana catesbeiana tadpoles. In: Perspectives in Comparative Endocrinology, edited by K. G. Davey, R. R. Peter, and S. S. Tobe. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, 1994, p. 412–415.
 106. Gancedo, B., I. Corpas, G. A. L. Alonso‐Gomez, M. J. Delgado, G. Morreale de Escobar, and M. Alonso‐Bedate. Corticotropin–releasing factor stimulates metamorphosis and increases thyroid hormone concentration in prometamorphic Rana perezi larvae. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 87: 6–13, 1992.
 107. Garber, M. J., K. G. DeYonge, J. C. Byatt, W. A. Lellis, D. C. Honeyfield, R. C. Bull, G. T. Schelling, and R. A. Roeder. Dose‐response effects of recombinant bovine somatotropin (Posilac) on growth performance and body composition of two‐year‐old rainbow trout (Oncorhyncbus mykiss). J. Anim. Sci. 73: 3216–3222, 1995.
 108. Girbau, M., L. Bassas, J. Alemany, and F. de Pablo. In situ autoradiography and ligand‐dependent tyrosine kinase activity reveal insulin receptors and insulin‐like growth factor I receptors in prepancreatic chicken embryos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 5868–5872, 1989.
 109. Glasscock, G. F., and C. S. Nicoll. Hormonal control of growth in the infant rat. Endocrinology 109: 176–184, 1981.
 110. Gluckman, P. D. Clinical review 68. The endocrine regulation of fetal growth in late gestation: the role of insulin‐like growth factors. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 80: 1047–1050, 1995.
 111. Gray, E. S., and K. M. Kelley. Growth regulation in the gobiid teleost, Gillichthys mirabilis: role of growth hormone, hepatic growth hormone receptors and insulin‐like growth factor‐I. J. Endocrinol. 131: 57–66, 1991.
 112. Gray, E. S., K. M. Kelley, S. Law, R. Tsai, G. Young, and H. A. Bern. Regulation of hepatic growth hormone receptors in coho salmon (Oncorhyncbus kisutch). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 88: 243–252, 1992.
 113. Gray, E. S., G. Young, and H. A. Bern. Radioreceptor assay for growth hormone in coho salmon (Oncorhyncbus kisutch) and its application to the study of stunting. J. Exp. Zool. 256: 290–296, 1990.
 114. Green, H., M. Morikawa, and T. Nixon. A dual effector theory of growth‐hormone action. Differentiation 29: 195–198, 1985.
 115. Grosvenor, C. E., M. F. Picciano, and C. R. Baumrucker. Hormones and growth factors in milk. Endocr. Rev. 14: 710–728, 1993.
 116. Guler, H. P., J. Zapf, C. Schmid, and E. R. Froesch. Insulinlike growth factors I and II in healthy man. Estimations of half‐lives and production rates. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 121: 753–758, 1989.
 117. Gutierrez, J., M. Parrizas, M. A. Maestro, I. Navarro, and E. M. Plisetskaya. Insulin and IGF‐I binding and tyrosine kinase activity in fish heart. J. Endocrinol. 146: 35–44, 1995.
 118. Harvey, S., and K. Hull. Growth hormone transport. In: Growth Hormone, edited by S. Harvey, C. G. Scanes, and W. Daughaday. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1995, p. 257–284.
 119. Hayes, T. B. Interdependence of corticosterone and thyroid hormones in larval toads (Bufo boreas). I. Thyroid hormone‐dependent and independent effects of corticosterone on growth and development. J. Exp. Zool. 271: 95–102, 1995.
 120. Hayes, T. B. Steroids as potential modulators of thyroid hormone activity in anuran metamorphosis. Amer. Zool. 37: 185–194, 1997.
 121. Hayes, T., R. Chan, and P. Licht. Interactions of temperature and steroids on larval growth, development, and metamorphosis in a toad (Bufo boreas). J. Exp. Zool. 266: 206–215, 1993.
 122. Hayes, T. B., and T. H. Wu. Interdependence of corticosterone and thyroid hormones in toad larvae (Bufo boreas). II. Regulation of corticosterone and thyroid hormones. J. Exp. Zool. 271: 103–111, 1995.
 123. Hazelwood, R. L. Pancreatic hormones and metabolism. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 289–325.
 124. Hilding, A., K. Brismar, M. Thoren, and K. Hall. Glucagon stimulates insulin‐like growth factor binding protein‐1 secretion in healthy subjects, patients with pituitary insufficiency, and patients with insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 77: 1142–1147, 1993.
 125. Hill, D. J., M. J. O. Francis, and R. D. G. Milner. Action of rat prolactin on plasma somatomedin levels in the rat and on somatomedin release from perfused rat liver. J. Endocrinol. 75: 137–143, 1977.
 126. Hoar, W. S. The physiology of smoking salmonids. In: Fish Physiology. The Physiology of Developing Fish. Viviparity and Posthatching Juveniles, edited by W. S. Hoar and D. J. Randall. San Diego: Academic, 1988, vol. XI, pt. B, p. 275–343.
 127. Holder, A. T., and M. Wallis. Actions of growth hormone, prolactin, and thyroxine on serum somatomedin‐like activity and growth in hypopituitary dwarf mice. J. Endocrinol. 74: 223–229, 1977.
 128. Hwang, P., H. Guyda, and H. Friesen. Purification of human prolactin. J. Biol. Chem. 247: 1955–1958, 1972.
 129. Inui, Y., S. Miwa, K. Yamano, and T. Hirano. Hormonal control of flounder metamorphosis. In: Perspectives in Comparative Endocrinology, edited by K. G. Davey, R. R. Peter, and S. S. Tobe. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, 1994, p. 408–411.
 130. Isaksson, O. G. P., A. Lindahl, J. Isgaard, A. Nilsson, J. Tornell, and B. Carlsson. Dual regulation of cartilage growth. In: Modern Concepts of Insulin‐like Growth Factors, edited by E. M. Spencer. Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1991, p. 121–127.
 131. Jackson, D., O. V. Volpert, N. Bouck, and D. I. H. Linzer. Stimulation and inhibition of angiogenesis by placental proliferin and proliferin‐related protein. Science 266: 1581–1584, 1994.
 132. Jaudet, G. J., and J. L. Hatey. Variations in aldosterone and corticosterone plasma levels during metamorphosis in Xenopus laevis tadpoles. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 56: 59–65, 1984.
 133. Jones, J. I., and D. R. Clemmons. Insulin‐like growth factors and their binding proteins: biological actions. Endocr. Rev. 16: 3–34, 1995.
 134. Joseph, J., and A. V. Ramachandran. Effect of exogenous dexamethasone and corticosterone on weight gain and organ growth in post‐hatched white Leghorn chicks. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 31: 858–860, 1993.
 135. Joss, J. M. P. Pituitary control of metamorphosis. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 60: 58–62, 1985.
 136. Kajimoto, Y., and P. Rotwein. Structure and expression of a chicken insulin‐like growth factor I precursor. Mol. Endocrinol. 3: 1907–1913, 1989.
 137. Kajimoto, Y., and P. Rotwein. Evolution of insulin‐like growth factor I (IGF‐I): structure and expression of an IGF‐I precursor from Xenopus laevis. Mol. Endocrinol. 4: 217–226, 1990.
 138. Kallincos, N. C., J. C. Wallace, G. L. Francis, and F. J. Ballard. Chemical and biological characterization of chicken insulin‐like growth factor II. J. Endocrinol. 124: 89–97, 1990.
 139. Kaltenbach, J. C. Endocrinology of amphibian metamorphosis. In: Metamorphosis: Postembryonic Reprogramming of Gene Expression in Amphibian and Insect Cells, edited by L. I. Gilbert, J. R. Tata, and B. G. Atkinson. San Diego: Academic, 1996, p. 403–431.
 140. Kavsan, V. M., A. P. Koval, V. A. Grebenjuk, S. J. Chan, D. F. Steiner, C. T. Roberts, Jr., and D. LeRoith. Structure of the chum salmon insulin‐like growth factor‐I gene. DNA Cell Biol. 12: 729–737, 1993.
 141. Kelley, K. M. Experimental diabetes mellitus in a teleost fish. I: Effect of complete isletectomy and subsequent hormonal treatment on metabolism in the goby, Gillichthys mirabilis. Endocrinology 132: 2689–2695, 1993.
 142. Kelley, K. M., E. S. Gray, K. Siharath, C. S. Nicoll, and H. Bern. Experimental diabetes mellitus in a teleost fish. II: Roles of insulin, growth hormone (GH), insulin‐like growth factor‐I, and hepatic GH receptors in diabetic growth inhibition in the goby, Gillichthys mirabilis. Endocrinology 132: 2696–2702, 1993.
 143. Kelley, K. M., Y. Oh, S. E. Gargosky, Z. Gucev, T. Matsumoto, V. Hwa, L. Ng, D. M. Simpson, and R. G. Rosenfeld. Insulin‐like growth factor‐binding proteins (IGFBPs) and their regulatory dynamics. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol. 28: 619–637, 1996.
 144. Kelley, K. M., S. M. Russell, M. L. Matteucci, and C. S. Nicoll. An insulin‐like growth factor I‐resistant state in cartilage of diabetic rats is ameliorated by hypophysectomy: possible role of metabolism. Diabetes 42: 463–469, 1993.
 145. Kelley, K. M., K. Siharath, and H. A. Bern. Identification of insulin‐like growth factor binding proteins in the circulation of four teleost fish species. J. Exp. Zool. 263: 220–224, 1992.
 146. Kelley, K. M., K. Siharath, C. S. Nicoll, R. G. Rosenfeld, and H. A. Bern. Metabolically induced changes in insulin‐like growth factor‐binding proteins (IGFBPs), conservation among vertebrates? Am. Zool. 34: 42A, 1994.
 147. Kikuyama, S. Amphibian prolactin and control of its secretion. In: Perspectives in Comparative Endocrinology, edited by K. G. Davey, R. R. Peter, and S. S. Tobe. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, 1994, p. 237–242.
 148. Kikuyama, S., K. Kawamura, S. Tanaka, and K. Yamamoto. Aspects of amphibian metamorphosis: hormonal control. Int. Rev. Cytol. 145: 105–148, 1993.
 149. Kishida, M., T. Hirano, J. Kubota, S. Hasegawa, H. Kawauchi, K. Yamaguchi, and K. Shirahata. Isolation of two forms of growth hormone secreted from eel pituitaries in vitro. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 65: 478–488, 1987.
 150. Kobuke, L., J. L. Specker, and H. A. Bern. Thyroxine content of eggs and larvae of coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. J. Exp. Zool. 242: 89–94, 1987.
 151. Kuwaye, T. T., D. K. Okimoto, S. S. Shimoda, R. D. Howerton, H.‐R. Lin, P. K. T. Pang, and E. G. Grau. Effect of 17 alpha‐methyltestosterone on the growth of the euryhaline tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus, in fresh water and in seawater. Aquaculture 113: 136–152, 1993.
 152. Lamson, G., L. C. Guidice, and R. G. Rosenfeld. Insulin‐like growth factor‐binding proteins: structural and molecular relationships. Growth Factors 5: 19–28, 1991.
 153. Lee, P. D., C. A. Conover, and D. R. Powell. Regulation and function of insulin‐like growth factor‐binding protein‐1. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 204: 4–29, 1993.
 154. Leibush, B., M. Parrizas, I. Navarro, Y. Lappova, M. A. Maestro, M. Encinas, E. M. Plisetskaya, and J. Gutierrez. Insulin and insulin‐like growth factor‐I receptors in fish brain. Regul. Peptides 61: 155–161, 1996.
 155. LeRoith, D., H. Werner, J. D. Beitner, and C.J. Roberts, Jr. Molecular and cellular aspects of the insulin‐like growth factor I receptor. Endocr. Rev. 16: 143–163, 1995.
 156. Lewitt, M. S., H. Saunders, G. J. Cooney, and R. C. Baxter. Effect of human insulin‐like growth factor‐binding protein‐1 on the half‐life and action of administered insulin‐like growth factor‐I in rats. J. Endocrinol. 136: 253–260, 1993.
 157. Liang, Y. H., C. H. K. Cheng, and K. M. Chan. Insulin‐like growth factor IEa2 is the predominantly expressed form of IGF in common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 5: 145–152, 1996.
 158. Licht, P., and H. Hoyer. Somatotropic effects of exogenous prolactin and growth hormone in juvenile lizards (Lacerta s. sicula). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 8: 228–244, 1967.
 159. Liu, L., and C. S. Nicoll. Postnatal development of dependence on thyroid hormones for growth and differentiation of rat skeletal structures. Growth 50: 472–484, 1986.
 160. Loeb, J. N. Corticosteroids and growth. N. Engl. J. Med. 295: 547–552, 1976.
 161. Lynn, W. G. The thyroid. In: Biology of the Reptilia, edited by C. Gans. London: Academic, 1970, p. 201–234.
 162. Madsen, S. S., and H. A. Bern. In vitro effects of insulin‐like growth factor‐I on gill Na+, K+‐ATPase in coho salmon, Oncorhynchus kisutch. J. Endocrinol. 138: 23–30, 1993.
 163. Mainoya, J. R. Effects of bovine growth hormone, human placental lactogen and ovine prolactin on intestinal fluid and ion transport in the rat. Endocrinology 96: 1165–1170, 1975.
 164. Mainoya, J. R. Water and NaCI absorption by the intestine of the tilapia Sarotherodon mossambicus adapted to fresh water or sea water and the possible role of prolactin and Cortisol. J. Comp. Physiol. 146: 1–7, 1982.
 165. Manzon, R. G., and J. H. Youson. The effects of exogenous thyroxine (T4) or triiodothyronine (T3), in the presence and absence of potassium perchlorate, on the incidence of metamorphosis and on serum T4 and T3 concentrations in larval sea lampreys (Petromyzon marinus L.). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 106: 211–220, 1997.
 166. Marchant, T. A., and B. M. Moroz. Hormonal influence on in vitro [35 S]‐sulfate by gill arches from the goldfish (Carassius auratus L.). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 11: 393–399, 1993.
 167. Marti, P. H., and S. J. Perez. Developmental regulation of growth hormone binding in the gilthead sea bream, Sparus aurata. Growth Reg. 4: 14–19, 1994.
 168. Martin, J. L., and R. C. Baxter. Insulin‐like growth factor‐binding protein‐3: biochemistry and physiology. Growth Regul. 2: 88–99, 1992.
 169. Martinez, R., M. P. Estrada, J. Berlanga, I. Guillen, O. Hernandez, E. Cabrera, R. Pimentel, R. Morales, F. Herrera, A. Morales, J. C. Pina, Z. Abad, V. Sanchez, P. Melamed, R. Lleonart, and J. de la Fuente. Growth enhancement in transgenic tilapia by ectopic expression of tilapia growth hormone. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 5: 62–70, 1996.
 170. McCormick, S. D. Effects of growth hormone and insulin‐like growth factor I on salinity tolerance and gill Na+, K+‐ATPase in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar): interaction with Cortisol. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 101: 3–11, 1996.
 171. McCormick, S. D., K. M. Kelley, G. Young, R. S. Nishioka, and H. A. Bern. Stimulation of coho salmon growth by insulinlike growth factor‐I. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 86: 398–406, 1992.
 172. McFarland, D. C. Nutritional and developmental roles of insulin‐like growth factors between species: a brief history and introduction. J. Nutr. 128 (Suppl): 300s–301s, 1998.
 173. McMurtry, J. P. Insulin and growth. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 249–263.
 174. McMurtry, J. P. Nutritional and developmental roles of insulin‐like growth factors in poultry. J. Nutr. 128 (Suppl.): 302s–305s, 1998.
 175. McNabb, F. M. A., and D. B. King. Thyroid hormone effects on growth, development, and metabolism. In: The Endocri nology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Verte brates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 393–417.
 176. McNabb, F. M. A., and C. M. Wilson. Thyroid hormone deposition in avian eggs and effects on embryonic development. Amer. Zool. 37: 553–560, 1997.
 177. Mick, C. C., and C. S. Nicoll. Prolactin directly stimulates the liver in vivo to secrete a factor (synlactin) which acts synergistically with the hormone. Endocrinology 116: 2049–2053, 1985.
 178. Milano, E. G., and C. Chimenti. Morphogenesis of the pancreas of Bufo bufo during metamorphosis. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 97: 239–249, 1995.
 179. Mommsen, T. P., and E. M. Plisetskaya. Insulin in fishes and agnathans: history, structure, and metabolic regulation. Rev. Aquatic Sci. 4: 225–259, 1991.
 180. Monsonego, E. O. Halevy, A. Gertler, S. Hurwitz, and M. Pines. Growth hormone inhibits differentiation of avian epiphyseal growth‐plate chondrocytes. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 114: 35–42, 1995.
 181. Monsonego, E., O. Halevy, A. Gertler, M. Volokita, M. Schickler, S. Hurwitz, and M. Pines. Growth hormone receptors in avian epiphyseal growth‐plate chondrocytes. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 92: 179–188, 1993.
 182. Moon, T. W., C. Castejon, N. Banos, M. A. Maestro, E. M. Plisetskaya, J. Gutierrez, and I. Navarro. Insulin and IGF‐I binding in isolated trout cardiomyocytes. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 103: 264–272, 1996.
 183. Moriyama, S., P. Swanson, M. Nishii, A. Takahashi, H. Kawauchi, W. W. Dickhoff, and E. M. Plisetskaya. Development of a homologous radioimmunoassay for coho salmon insulinlike growth factor‐I. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 96: 149–161, 1994.
 184. Murphy, L. J., K. Tachibana, and H. G. Friesen. Stimulation of hepatic insulin‐like growth factor‐I gene expression by ovine prolactin: evidence for intrinsic somatogenic activity in the rat. Endocrinology 122: 2027–2033, 1988.
 185. Murray‐Rust, J., A.N. McLeod, T. L. Blundell, and S. P. Wood. Structure and evolution of insulins, implications for receptor binding. Bioessays 14: 325–331, 1992.
 186. Nagamatsu, S., S. J. Chan, S. Falkmer, and D. F. Steiner. Evolution of the insulin gene superfamily. Sequence of a preproinsulin‐like growth factor cDNA from the Atlantic hagfish. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 2397–2402, 1991.
 187. Nam, T. J., K. Y. Park, Y. D. Lee, and Y. U. Kim. Serum levels of insulin‐like growth factor‐I in flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus. Bull. Korean Fisheries Soc. 29: 150–156, 1996.
 188. Ndukuba, P. I., and A. V. Ramachandran. Dopamine antagonist speeds up tail regeneration in lizards exposed to continuous darkness: evidence for prolactin involvement. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 192: 145–152, 1989.
 189. Nicoll, C. S. Secretion of prolactin and growth hormone by adenohypophyses of rhesus monkeys in vitro. In: Ciba Foundation Symposium on Lactogenic Hormones, edited by G. E. W. Wolstenholme and J. Knight. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1971, p. 257–268.
 190. Nicoll, C. S. Physiological actions of prolactin. In: Handbook of Physiology. Endocrinology. The Pituitary Gland and Its Neuroendocrine Control, edited by E. Knobil and W. H. Sawyer. Washington, D.C.: Am. Physiol. Soc., sect. 7, vol. IV, pt. 2, 1974, p. 253–292.
 191. Nicoll, C. S. Ontogeny and evolution of prolactin's functions. Federation Proc. 39: 2563–2566, 1980.
 192. Nicoll, C. S. Prolactin and growth hormone: specialists on one hand and mutual mimics on the other. Perspect. Biol. Med. 25: 369–381, 1982.
 193. Nicoll, C. S. Pigeon crop sac as a model system for studying the direct and indirect effects of hormones and growth factors on cell growth and differentiation in vivo. J. Exp. Zool. Suppl. 4: 72–77, 1990.
 194. Nicoll, C. S. Role of prolactin and placental lactogens in vertebrate growth and development. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 183–196.
 195. Nicoll, C. S., T. R. Anderson, N. J. Hebert, and S. M. Russell. Comparative aspects of the growth‐promoting actions of prolactin on its target organs: evidence for synergism with an insulin‐like growth factor. In: Prolactin. Basic and Clinical Correlates, edited by R. M. MacLeod, M. O. Thorner, and U. Scapagnini. Padua: Liviana, 1985, p. 393–410.
 196. Nicoll, C. S., and R. A. Baldocchi. Evolutionary origin of prolactins, growth hormones and placental lactogens. In: Progress in Endocrinology 1988, edited by H. Imura, K. Shizume, and S. Yoshida. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1988, p. 1379–1384.
 197. Nicoll, C. S., and H. A. Bern. On the actions of prolactin among the vertebrates: is there a common denominator? In: Ciba Foundation Symposium on Lactogenic Hormones, edited by G. E. W. Wolstenholme and J. Knight. London: Churchill Livingstone, 1971, p. 299–324.
 198. Nicoll, C. S., N. J. Hebert, B. C. Delidow, D. E. English, and S. M. Russell. Prolactin and synlactin: comparative aspects. In: Progress in Comparative Endocrinology, edited by A. Epple, C. G. Scanes, and M. H. Stetson. New York: Wiley‐Liss, 1990, p. 211–218.
 199. Nicoll, C. S., and P. Licht. Evolutionary biology of prolactins and somatotropins. II. Electrophoretic comparison of tetrapod somatotropins. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 17: 490–501, 1971.
 200. Nicoll, C. S., L. Liu, E. Alarid, M. Chiang, and S. M. Russell. Analysis of the role of hormones and growth factors in growth control and tissue differentiation using transplanted mammalian embryos and fetal structures. Growth Regul. 1: 133–144, 1991.
 201. Nicoll, C. S., G. L. Mayer, and S. M. Russell. Structural features of prolactins and growth hormones that can be related to their biological properties. Endocr. Rev. 7: 169–203, 1986.
 202. Nicoll, C. S., and C. W. Nichols, Jr. Evolutionary biology of prolactins and somatotropins. I. Electrophoretic comparison of tetrapod prolactins. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 17: 300–310, 1971.
 203. Nicoll, C. S., J. F. Tarpey, G. L. Mayer, and S. M. Russell. Similarities and differences among prolactins and growth hormones and their receptors. Am. Zool. 26: 965–983, 1986.
 204. Nicoll, C. S., S. W. Wilson, R. Nishioka, and H. A. Bern. Blood and pituitary prolactin levels in tilapia (Sarotherodon mossambicus; Teleostei) from different salinities as measured by a homologous radioimmunoassay. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 44: 365–373, 1981.
 205. Nishida, Y., M. Hata, Y. Nishizuka, W. J. Rutter, and Y. Ebina. Cloning of a Drosophila cDNA encoding a polypeptide similar to the human insulin receptor precursor. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 141: 474–481, 1986.
 206. Nishioka, R. S., K. Siharath, and H. A. Bern. Growth hormone affects serum levels of IGF‐binding proteins (IGFBPs) in hypophysectomized striped bass. In: Proc. 3rd Int. Symp. Insulinlike Growth Factors/Somatomedins, Sydney, 1994, p. Growth Reg. 4 (Suppl 1): Abstract 1205, 1994.
 207. Niu, P.‐D., and P.‐Y. Le Bail. Presence of insulin‐like growth factor binding protein (IGF‐BP) in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus kisutch). J. Exp. Zool. 265: 627–636, 1993.
 208. Nygren, J., M. Sammann, M. Malm, S. Efendic, K. Hall, K. Brismar, and O. Ljungqvist. Distributed anabolic hormonal patterns in burned patients: the relation to glucagon. Clin. Endocrinol. (Oxf.) 43: 491–500, 1995.
 209. Ogren, L., and F. Talamantes. The placenta as an endocrine organ: polypeptides. In: The Physiology of Reproduction (2nd ed.), edited by E. Knobil and J. D. Neill. New York: Raven, 1994, vol. 2, p. 875–946.
 210. Palamarchuk, A. Y., P. E. Holthuizen, W. E. Muller, J. S. Sussenbach, and V. M. Kavsan. Organization and expression of the chum salmon insulin‐like growth factor II gene. FEBS Lett 416: 344–348, 1997.
 211. Pancak‐Roessler, M. K., and P. D. K. Lee. Insulin‐like growth factor‐I and insulin‐like growth factor‐binding protein in the toad, Bufo woodhousei. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 78: 263–272, 1990.
 212. Parrizas, M., M. A. Maestro, N. Banos, I. Navarro, J. Planas, and J. Gutierrez. Insulin/IGF‐I binding ratio in skeletal and cardiac muscles of vertebrates: a phylogenetic approach. Am. J. Physiol. 269, (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 40): R1370–R1377, 1995.
 213. Parrizas, M., E. M. Plisetskaya, J. Planas, and J. Gutierrez. Abundant insulin‐like growth factor‐I (IGF‐I) receptor binding in fish skeletal muscle. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 98: 16–25, 1995.
 214. Pashmforousch, M., S. J. Chan, and D. F. Steiner. Structure and expression of the insulin‐like peptide receptor from Amphioxus. Mol. Endocrinol. 10: 857–866, 1996.
 215. Perez‐Sanchez, J., H. Marti‐Palanca, and P.‐Y. LeBail. Homologous growth hormone (GH) binding in gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata). Effect of fasting and refeeding on hepatic GH‐binding and plasma somatomedin‐like immunoreactivity. J. Fish. Biol. 44: 287–301, 1994.
 216. Perez‐Villamil, B., E. Bordiu, and M. Puente‐Cueva. Involvement of physiological prolactin levels in growth and prolactin receptor content of prostate glands and testes in developing male rats. J. Endocrinol. 132: 449–459, 1992.
 217. Perfetti, R., L. A. Scott, and A. R. Shuldiner. The two nonallelic insulin‐like growth factor‐I genes in Xenopus laevis are differentially regulated during development. Endocrinology 135: 2037–2044, 1994.
 218. Pestarino, M. Prolactinergic neurons in a protochordate. Cell Tissue Res. 233: 471–474, 1983.
 219. Pestarino, M. Immunocytochemical demonstration of prolactin‐like activity in the neural gland of the ascidian Styela plicata. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 54: 444–449, 1984.
 220. Petruzzelli, L., R. Herrera, A. R. Garcia, and O. M. Rosen. Acquisition of insulin‐dependent protein tyrosine kinase activity during Drosophila embryogenesis. J. Biol. Chem. 260: 16072–16075, 1985.
 221. Pickering, A. D. Stress and the suppression of somatic growth in teleost fish. Prog. Clin. Biol. Res. 342: 473–479, 1990.
 222. Pickering, A. D., T. G. Pottinger, J. P. Sumpter, J. F. Carragher, and B. P. Le. Effects of acute and chronic stress on the levels of circulating growth hormone in the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 83: 86–93, 1991.
 223. Pimentel, B., E. J. de la Rosa, and F. de Pablo. Insulin acts as an embryonic growth factor for Drosophila neural cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 226: 855–861, 1996.
 224. Plisetskaya, E. M. Peptides of insulin and glucagon superfamilies in fish. Neth. J. Zool. 45: 181–188, 1995.
 225. Plisetskaya, E. M., and C. Duan. Insulin and insulin‐like growth factor I in coho salmon Oncorhynchus kisutch injected with streptozotocin. Am. J. Physiol. 267: (Regulatory Integrative Comp. Physiol. 38): R1408–R1412, 1994.
 226. Plisetskaya, E., S. A. Sower, and A. Gorbman. The effect of insulin insufficiency on plasma thyroid hormones and some metabolic constituents in Pacific hagfish, Eptatretus stouti. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 49: 315–319, 1983.
 227. Rand‐Weaver, M., H. Kawauchi, and M. Ono. Evolution of the structure of the growth hormone and prolactin family. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diegoo: Academic 1993, p. 13–42.
 228. Rechler, M. M., and A. L. Brown. Insulin‐like growth factor binding proteins: gene structure and expression. Growth Regul. 2: 55–68, 1992.
 229. Reid, I. R., A. G. Veale, and J. T. France. Glucocorticoid osteoporosis. J. Asthma 31: 7–18, 1994.
 230. Reiprich, K., E. Muhlbauer, E. Decuypere, and R. Grossmann. Characterization of growth hormone gene expression in the pituitary and plasma growth hormone concentrations during posthatch development in the chicken. J. Endocrinol. 145: 343–353, 1995.
 231. Rentier, D. F., D. Swennen, P. Prunet, M. Lion, and J. A. Martial. Tilapia prolactin: molecular cloning of two cDNAs and expression in Escherichia coli. DNA 8: 261–270, 1989.
 232. Rodgers, B. D. Catabolic hormones and growth hormone resistance in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and other catabolic states. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 212: 324–331, 1996.
 233. Rodgers, B. D., R. M. Bautista, and C. S. Nicoll. Regulation of insulin‐like growth factor‐binding proteins in rats with insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 210: 234–241, 1995.
 234. Rodgers, B. D., L. M. Helms, and E. G. Grau. Effects of fasting, medium glucose, and amino acid concentrations on prolactin and growth hormone release, in vitro, from the pituitary of the tilapia Oreochromis mossambicus. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 86: 344–351, 1992.
 235. Rodgers, B. D., A. O. T. Lau, and C. S. Nicoll. Hypophysectomy or adrenalectomy of rats with insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus partially restores their responsiveness to growth hormone. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 207: 220–225, 1994.
 236. Rodgers, B. D., A. M. Strack, M. F. Dallman, L. Hwa, and C. S. Nicoll. Corticosterone regulation of insulin‐like growth factor I, IGF‐binding proteins, and growth in streptozotocin‐induced diabetic rats. Diabetes 44: 1420–1425, 1995.
 237. Rosenfeld, R. G., H. Pham, P. Cohen, P. Fielder, S. E. Gargosky, H. Muller, L. Nonoshita, and Y. Oh. Insulin‐like growth factor binding proteins and their regulation. Acta Paediatr. Suppl. 339: 154–158, 1994.
 238. Rotwein, P. Structure, evolution, expression and regulation of insulin‐like growth factors I and II. Growth Factors 5: 3–18, 1991.
 239. Ruan, Y., C. Chen, Y. Cao, and R. S. Garofalo. The Drosophila insulin receptor contains a novel carboxyl‐terminal extension likely to play an important role in signal transduction. J. Biol. Chem. 270: 4236–4243, 1995.
 240. Russell, S. M., and C. S. Nicoll. Evolution of growth hormone and prolactin receptors and effectors. In: Progress in Comparative Endocrinology, edited by A. Epple, C. G. Scanes, and M. H. Stetson. New York: Wiley‐Liss, 1990, p. 168–173.
 241. Russell, S. M., and E. M. Spencer. Local injections of human or rat growth hormone or of purified human somatomedin‐C stimulate unilateral tibial epiphyseal growth in hypophysectomized rats. Endocrinology 116: 2563–2567, 1985.
 242. Russell, S. M., M. A. Vodian, J. P. Hughes, and C. S. Nicoll. Electrophoretic separation of rat growth hormone with different bioassay and immunoassay activities: comparison of intraglandular and secreted forms. Life Sci. 23: 2373–2382, 1978.
 243. Sakamoto, T., and T. Hirano. Expression of insulin‐like growth factor I gene in osmoregulatory organs during seawater adaptations of the salmonid fish. Possible mode of osmoregulatory action of growth hormone. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90 1912–1916, 1993.
 244. Sakamoto, T., B. S. Shepherd, S. S. Madsen, R. S. Nishioka, K. Siharath, N. H. Richman, H. A. Bern, and E. G. Grau. Osmoregulatory actions of growth hormone and prolactin in an advanced teleost. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 106: 95–101, 1997.
 245. Sato, N., K. Murata, K. Watanabe, T. Hayami, Y. Kariya, M. Sakaguchi, S. Kimura, M. Nonaka, and A. Kimura. Growth‐promoting activity of tuna growth hormone and expression of tuna growth hormone cDNA in Escherichia coli. Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 10: 385–393, 1988.
 246. Scanes, C. G., and R. M. Campbell. Growth hormone: chemistry. In: Growth Hormone, edited by S. Harvey, C. G. Scanes, and W. Daughaday. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1995, p. 1–24.
 247. Scanes, C. G., and R. M. Campbell. Growth hormone: evolution. In: Growth Hormone, edited by S. Harvey, C. G. Scanes, and W. Daughaday. Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1995, p. 25–37.
 248. Scanes, C. G., and T. J. Lauterio. Growth hormone: its physiology and control. J. Exp. Zool. 232: 443–452, 1984.
 249. Scavo, L., A. R. Shuldiner, J. Serrano, R. Dashner, J. Roth, and F. de Pablo. Genes encoding receptors for insulin and insulinlike growth factor I are expressed in Xenopus oocytes and embryos. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88: 6214–6218, 1991.
 250. Schreck, C. B. Glucocorticoids: metabolism, growth, and development. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 367–392.
 251. Schütz, M., and G. W. Barlow. Young of the Midas cichlid get biologically active nonnutrients by eating mucus from the surface of their parents. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 16: 11–18, 1997.
 252. Shamblott, M. J., and T. T. Chen. Identification of a second insulin‐like growth factor in a fish species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 8913–8917, 1992.
 253. Shamblott, M. J., and T. T. Chen. Age‐related and tissue‐specific levels of five forms of insulin‐like growth factor mRNA in a teleost. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 2: 351–361, 1993.
 254. Shepherd, B. S., B. Ron, A. Burch, R. Sparks, N. H. Richman, S. K. Shimoda, M. H. Stetson, C. Lim, and E. G. Grau. Effects of salinity, dietary level of protein and 17alpha‐methyltestosterone on growth hormone (GH) and prolactin (tPRL 177 and tPRL 188) levels in the tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus. Fish Physiol. Biochem. 17: 279–288, 1997.
 255. Shepherd, B. S., T. Sakamoto, R. S. Nishioka, N. H. Richman, I. Mori, S. S. Madsen, T. T. Chen, T. Hirano, H. A. Bern, and E. G. Grau. Somatotropic actions of the homologous growth hormone and prolactins in the euryhaline teleost, the tilapia, Oreochromis mossambicus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94: 2068–2072, 1997.
 256. Shimasaki, S., and N. Ling. Identification and molecular char‐acterization of insulin‐like growth factor binding proteins (IGFBP‐1, ‐2, ‐3, ‐4, ‐5 and ‐6). Prog. Growth Factor Res. 3: 243–266, 1991.
 257. Shuldiner, A. R., A. Nirula, L. A. Scott, and J. Roth. Evidence that Xenopus laevis contains two different nonallelic insulinlike growth factor‐I genes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 166: 223–230, 1990.
 258. Siharath, K., and H. A. Bern. The physiology of insulin‐like growth factor (IGF) and its binding proteins in teleost fishes. Proc. Zool. Soc. Calcutt Haldore Comm. Vol. 113–124, 1993.
 259. Siharath, K., K. M. Kelley, and H. A. Bern. A low‐molecular‐weight (25–kDa) IGF‐binding protein is increased with growth inhibition in the fasting striped bass, Morone saxatilis. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 102: 307–316, 1996.
 260. Siharath, K., R. S. Nishioka, and H. A. Bern. In vitro production of IGF‐binding proteins (IGFBP) by various organs of the striped bass, Morone saxatilis. Aquaculture 135: 195–202, 1995.
 261. Siharath, K., R. S. Nishioka, S. S. Madsen, and H. A. Bern. Regulation of IGF‐binding proteins by growth hormone in the striped bass, Morone saxatilis. Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 4: 171–178, 1995.
 262. Shi, Y. B., and D. D. Brown. The earliest changes in gene expression in tadpole intestine induced by thyroid hormone. J. Biol. Chem. 268: 20312–20317, 1993.
 263. Skyrud, T., O. Anderson, P. Alestrom, and K. M. Gautvik. Effect of recombinant growth hormone and insulin‐like growth factor I on body growth and blood metabolites in brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 75: 247–255, 1989.
 264. Slack, J. Role of fibroblast growth factors as inducing agents in early embryonic development. Mol. Reprod. Devl. 39: 118–124, 1994.
 265. Smit, A. B., A. van Marie, R. van Elk, J. Bogerd, H. van Heerikhuizen, and W. P. Geraerts. Evolutionary conservation of the insulin gene structure in invertebrates: cloning of the gene encoding molluscan insulin‐related peptide III from Lymnaea stagnalis. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 11: 103–113, 1993.
 266. Smit, A. B., E. Vreugdenhil, R. H. Ebberink, W. P. Geraerts, J. Klootwijk, and J. Joosse. Growth‐controlling molluscan neurons produce the precursor of an insulin‐related peptide. Nature 331: 535–538, 1988.
 267. Specker, J. L., D. S. King, R. S. Nishioka, K. Shirahata, K. Yamaguchi, and H. A. Bern. Isolation and partial characterization of a pair of prolactins released in vitro by the pituitary of a cichlid fish, Oreochromis mossambicus. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82: 7490–7494, 1985.
 268. Spencer, E. M. Lack of response of serum somatomedin to hyperprolactinemia in humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 50: 182–185, 1980.
 269. Stamper, D. L., R. J. Denver, and P. Licht. Effects of thyroidal status on metabolism and growth of juvenile turtles, Pseudemys scripta elegans. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A 96: 67–73, 1990.
 270. Steele, N. C., and C. M. Evock‐Clover. Role of growth hormone in growth of homeotherms. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 73–91.
 271. Sullivan, C. V., D. S. Darling, and W. W. Dickhoff. Effects of triiodothyronine and propylthiouracil on thyroid function and smoltification of coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Fish Physiol. Biochem. 4: 121–135, 1987.
 272. Sumpter, J. P., B. P. Le, A. D. Pickering, T. G. Pottinger, and J. F. Carragher. The effect of starvation on growth and plasma growth hormone concentrations of rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 83: 94–102, 1991.
 273. Suzuki, S. Induction of metamorphosis and thyroid function in the larval lamprey. In: frontiers in Thyroidology, edited by G. Mederios‐Neto and E. Gaitan. New York: Plenum, 1986, vol. 1, p. 667–670.
 274. Swisshelm, K., K. Ryan, K. Tsuchiya, and R. Sager. Enhanced expression of an insulin growth factor‐like binding protein (mac25) in senescent human mammary epithelial cells and induced expression with retinoic acid. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92: 4472–4476, 1995.
 275. Tagawa, M., and T. Hirano. Presence of thyroxine in eggs and changes in its content during early development of chum salmon, Oncorhynchus keta. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 68: 129–135, 1987.
 276. Takagi, Y., and B. Th. Bjornsson. Regulation of cartilage glycosaminoglycan synthesis in the rainbow trout, Oncorhynchus mykiss, by 3,3′,5‐tri‐iodo‐L‐thyronine and IGF‐I. J. Endocrinol. 149: 357–365, 1996.
 277. Takahashi, N., S. Kikuyama, K. Gen, O. Maruyama, and Y. Kato. Cloning of a bullfrog growth hormone cDNA: expression of growth hormone mRNA in larval and adult bullfrog pituitaries. J. Mol. Endocrinol. 9: 283–289, 1992.
 278. Tata, J. R. Hormonal interplay and thyroid hormone receptor expression during amphibian metamorphosis. In: Metamorphosis: Postembryonic Reprogramming of Gene Expression in Amphibian and Insect Cells, edited by L. I. Gilbert, J. R. Tata, and B. G. Atkinson. San Diego: Academic, 1996, p. 465–503.
 279. Tata, J. R., A. Kawahara, and B. S. Baker. Prolactin inhibits both thyroid hormone‐induced morphogenesis and cell death in cultured amphibian larval tissues. Dev. Biol. 146: 72–80, 1991.
 280. Tazuke, S. I., and L. C. Giudice. Growth factors and cytokines in endometrium, embryonic development, and maternal:embryonic interactions. Semin. Reprod. Endocrinol. 14: 231–245, 1996.
 281. Thakore, J. H., and T. G. Dinan. Growth hormone secretion: the role of glucocorticoids. Life Sci. 55: 1083–1099, 1994.
 282. Thommes, R. C., and J. E. Woods. Endocrine regulation of the growth/development of warm‐blooded vertebrate embryos/fetuses. In: The Endocrinology of Growth, Development, and Metabolism of Vertebrates, edited by M. P. Schreibman, C. G. Scanes, and P. K. T. Pang. San Diego: Academic, 1993, p. 495–518.
 283. Thorngren, K.‐G., and L. I. Hansson. Bioassay of growth hormone and prolactin preparations by determination of longitudinal bone growth with tetracycline. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 86: 71–80, 1977.
 284. Tobar, D. E., D. P. Froman, and S. L. Davis. Factors affecting circulating growth hormone binding protein in chickens. Poult. Sci. 72: 2337–2346, 1993.
 285. Toguyeni, A., J. F. Baroiller, A. Fostier, B. P. Le, E. R. Kuhn, K. A. Mol, and B. Fauconneau. Consequences of food restriction on short‐term growth variation and on plasma circulating hormones in Oreochromis niloticus in relation to sex. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 103: 167–175, 1996.
 286. Upton, Z., S. J. Chan, D. F. Steiner, J. C. Wallace, and F. J. Ballard. Evolution of insulin‐like growth factor binding proteins. Growth Regut. 3: 29–32, 1993.
 287. Upton, Z., G. L. Francis, S. J. Chan, D. F. Steiner, J. C. Wallace, and F. J. Ballard. Evolution of insulin‐like growth factor (IGF) function: production and characterization of recombinant hagfish IGF. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 105: 79–90, 1997.
 288. Wallis, M. Variable evolutionary rates in the molecular evolution of mammalian growth hormones. J. Mol. Evol. 38: 619–627, 1994.
 289. Wallis, M. The molecular evolution of vertebrate growth hormones: a pattern of near‐stasis interrupted by sustained bursts of rapid change. J. Mol. Evol. 43: 93–100, 1996.
 290. Wallis, A. E., and R. H. Devlin. Duplicate insulin‐like growth factor‐I genes in salmon display alternative splicing pathways. Mol. Endocrinol. 7: 409–422, 1993.
 291. Weber, H. W., S. Vallett, L. Neilson, M. Grotke, Y. Chao, M. Brudnak, A. S. Juan, and M. Pellegrini. Serum, insulin and phorbol esters stimulate rRNA and tRNA gene expression in both dividing and nondividing Drosophila cells. Mol. Cell. Biochem. 104: 201–207, 1991.
 292. White, B. A., and C. S. Nicoll. Hormonal control of amphibian metamorphosis: In: Metamorphosis: A Problem in Developmental Biology, edited by L. I. Gilbert and E. Frieden. New York: Plenum, 1981, p. 363–396.
 293. Wright, M. L., L. J. Cykowski, L. Lundrigan, K. L. Hemond, D. M. Kochan, E. E. Faszewski, and C. M. Anuszewski. Anterior pituitary and adrenal cortical hormones accelerate or inhibit tadpole hindlimb growth and development depending on stage of spontaneous development or thyroxine concentration in induced metamorphosis. J. Exp. Zool. 270: 175–188, 1994.
 294. Wright, M. L., M. A. Majerowski, S. M. Lukas, and P. A. Pike. Effect of prolactin on growth, development, and epidermal cell proliferation in the hindlimb of the Rana pipiens tadpole. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 39: 53–62, 1979.
 295. Yamaguchi, K., J. L. Specker, D. S. King, Y. Yokoo, R. S. Nishioka, T. Hirano, and H. A. Bern. Complete amino acid sequences of a pair of fish (tilapia) prolactins, tPRL177 and 1PRL188. J. Biol. Chem. 263: 9113–9121, 1988.
 296. Yamano, K., M. Tagawa, E. G. de Jesus, T. Hirano, S. Miwa, and Y. Inui. Changes in whole body concentrations of thyroid hormones and Cortisol in metamorphosing conger eel. J. Comp. Physiol. [B] 161: 371–375, 1991.
 297. Yang, Y. W.‐H., A. R. Robbins, S. P. Nissley, and M. M. Rechler. The chick embryo fibroblast cation‐independent mannose‐6‐phosphate receptor is functional and immunologically related to the mammalian insulin‐like growth factor‐II (IGF‐II)/mannose‐6‐P receptor but does not bind IGF‐II. Endocrinology 126: 1177–1189, 1991.
 298. Youson, J. H. Environmental and hormonal cues and endocrine glands during lamprey metamorphosis. In: Perspectives in Comparative Endocrinology, edited by K. G. Davey, R. E. Peter, and S. S. Tobe. Ottawa: National Research Council of Canada, 1994, p. 400–407.
 299. Youson, J. H. Is lamprey metamorphosis regulated by thyroid hormones? Amer. Zool. 37: 441–460, 1997.
 300. Zhang, P. J., M. Hayat, C. Joyce, V. L. Gonzalez, C. M. Lin, R. A. Dunham, T. T. Chen, and D. A. Powers. Gene transfer, expression and inheritance of pRSV‐rainbow trout‐GH cDNA in the common carp, Cyprinus carpio (Linnaeus). Mol. Reprod. Dev. 25: 3–13, 1990.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Hormonal Regulation of Growth and Development of Nonmammalian Vertebrates
 

How to Cite

Charles S. Nicoll, Buel D. Rodgers, Kevin M. Kelley. Hormonal Regulation of Growth and Development of Nonmammalian Vertebrates. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 24: Handbook of Physiology, The Endocrine System, Hormonal Control of Growth: 73-98. First published in print 1999. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp070503