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Renal Acidification: Integrated Tubular Responses

Martin G. Cogan, Albert H. Quan

10.1002/cphy.cp080122

Source: Supplement 25: Handbook of Physiology, Renal Physiology

Originally published: 1992

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Normal Acidification by Nephron Segments
1.1 Overview of Mechanisms of Acidification
1.2 Rates of Acidification
1.3 pH Gradient
1.4 Physiological Roles of Normal Renal Acidification
2 Renal Response to Change in Glomerular Filtration Rate and Luminal Flow Rate
2.1 Bicarbonate Reabsorption
3 Renal Response to Decrease in Plasma Bicarbonate Concentration: Metabolic Acidosis
3.1 Bicarbonate Reabsorption
3.2 Ammonium Formation
3.3 Titratable Acid Formation
3.4 Integrated Nephron Response: Renal Net Acid Excretion
4 Renal Response to Increase in Plasma Bicarbonate Concentration: Metabolic Alkalosis
4.1 Exogenous Bicarbonate Administration without Extracellular Volume Contraction or Potassium Depletion
4.2 Bicarbonate Generation or Administration in the Setting of Chloride and Potassium Deficiencies
5 Renal Response to Alterations in Plasma PCO2
5.1 Bicarbonate Reabsorption
5.2 Ammonium and Titratable Acid Formation
5.3 Integrated Nephron Response: Bicarbonate Reabsorption and Net Acid Excretion by the Whole Kidney
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Nephron mechanisms of acidification. Cellular mechanisms of acidification and bicarbonate secretion are shown (top) for proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), cortical collecting tubule (CCT), and medullary collecting tubule (MCT). Principal roles for nephron segments are shown (bottom) for reabsorbing bicarbonate and titrating ammonia and titratable buffers (A−).

Adapted from ref. 85
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Bicarbonate filtration, reabsorption, and delivery along rat nephron.

Adapted from refs. 52,58,69,73,74,80,81,103,104,106,111,150,171,226,251
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Axial profile of luminal bicarbonate concentration, rate of bicarbonate transport, and cumulative bicarbonate reabsorption as function of length in proximal convoluted tubule in Munich‐Wistar rat during hydropenia.

Adapted from ref. 233
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Ammonium filtration, transport, and delivery along rat nephron.

Adapted from refs. 33,51,52,150,170,187,190,319,342,343,346,353,385
Figure 5. Figure 5.

pH profile along rat nephron.

Adapted from refs. 33,51,52,102,104,105,106,145,151,170,190,267,342,343,385
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Titratable acid formation and delivery along rat nephron.

Adapted from refs. 33,52,150,170,190,192,342,343,385
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Net acid formation along rat nephron, based on values given in Figures 2, 4, and 6. Net acid at a given site is defined as ammonium plus titratable acid (TA) minus bicarbonate delivery at that site.
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Bicarbonate absorptive rate in early, S1 proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) (solid symbols) and late, S2 PCT (open symbols) in a control period and after systemic angiotensin II (ANG, squares), saralasin (SAR, hexagons), or vehicle (CON, circles) administration.

From Lin and Cogan 236
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Load‐dependency of bicarbonate transport in each millimeter of proximal convoluted tubule of Munich‐Wistar rat under free‐flow conditions. Dotted line from microperfusion data of Alpern et al. 12.

From Liu and Cogan 234
Figure 10. Figure 10.

A. Bicarbonate reabsorption as function of single nephron glomerular filtration rate in normal euvolemic (open circles) or volume‐expanded (closed circles) Munich‐Wistar rats. Dashed lines represent model predictions based on computer‐simulated model derived from in vivo microperfusion data.

Adapted from refs. 13 and 80 and reprinted from Cogan and Alpern 75.] B. Bicarbonate reabsorption as a function of filtered bicarbonate load in normal and acidotic Munich‐Wistar rats during contracted, normal, or expanded extracellular volume states. [Adapted from refs. 73,80, and 81 and reprinted from Cogan and Rector 85
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Bicarbonate reabsorption as function of SNGFR in euvolemic (open circles) or volume‐expanded (closed circles) Munich‐Wistar rats with metabolic alkalosis. Dashed lines represent model predictions based on computer‐simulated model derived from in vivo microperfusion data.

Adapted from refs. 13 and 78 and reprinted from Cogan and Alpern 75
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Distal bicarbonate delivery during metabolic acidosis. Shown are end‐proximal bicarbonate concentration (top) and absolute bicarbonate delivery out of proximal convoluted tubule (bottom) in Munich‐Wistar rats during progressive reduction in glomerular ultrafiltrate bicarbonate concentration, assuming SNGFR of ∼36 nl/min.

Adapted from refs. 80 and 84
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Net acid excretion in normal control and acid‐loaded Munich‐Wistar rats.

From Buerkert et al. 52
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Time course of plasma bicarbonate concentration, urine pH, and urinary net acid excretion during chronic ammonium chloride loading in normal humans.

Adapted from ref. 323
Figure 15. Figure 15.

SNGFR (upper left panel), glomerular ultrafiltrate bicarbonate concentration (lower left panel), and filtration, absolute proximal reabsorption, and distal delivery of bicarbonate (right panel) in Munich‐Wistar rats in a control state and following bicarbonate loading to achieve acute metabolic alkalosis.

Adapted from refs. 71,73,74,78,80,81,234
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Effects of hyperbicarbonatemia and alkalemia on proton secretion in late proximal convoluted tubule as function of mean luminal bicarbonate concentration during in vivo microperfusion.

Adapted from ref. 11 and modified from Cogan and Alpern 75
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Absolute bicarbonate reabsorption as function of proximal convoluted tubule length in Munich‐Wistar rats with normal systemic pH (triangles; treated with either atrial natriuretic factor or glucagon) and chronic metabolic alkalosis (circles) at comparable filtered bicarbonate loads.

From Liu and Cogan 234
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Reabsorbate bicarbonate concentration (absolute reabsorption of bicarbonate divided by absolute reabsorption of water) in Munich‐Wistar rat proximal convoluted tubule. Represented are data from rats with normal systemic pH that are hydropenic (open circle refs. 80,81,83), euvolemic (open hexagon; refs. 74,80,81,83), plasma expanded (closed hexagon; refs. 80 and 83), Ringer expanded (open and closed diamonds; refs. 80 and 83), saline expanded (closed triangle; refs. 80 and 84), or treated with atrial natriuretic factor (open hexagon with enclosed dot; ref. 73); with metabolic acidosis (ammonium chloride loading) that are hydropenic (open triangle; refs. 80 and 84) or euvolemic (open inverted triangle; refs. 79 and 84); with acute metabolic alkalosis (open square or closed circle; refs. 71,78, and unpublished observations) and during superimposed aortic constriction (open circle with enclosed cross; unpublished observations); with chronic metabolic alkalosis (open square with enclosed circle; refs. 71 and 78) and during superimposed isohydric Ringer expansion (open square with enclosed closed circle; ref. 78), isohydric plasma expansion (closed square; ref. 78), or atrial natriuretic administration (open circle with enclosed open square; ref. 72).
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Models for maintaining hyperbicarbonatemia. Shown are absolute proximal bicarbonate reabsorption as function of SNGFR (top) or filtered bicarbonate load (bottom) for normal rats (solid line) and for rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis (dashed lines) in which proximal acidification is either suppressed by alkalemia (curve A) or unaffected by alkalemia (curve B). Single and double arrows denote SNGFR or filtered bicarbonate load of inflection points of curve A and curve B, respectively, and therefore highest steady‐state SNGFR or filtered bicarbonate load that would obtain during maintenance phase of chronic metabolic alkalosis. See text for details.
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Plasma bicarbonate concentration, SNGFR, and filtration, proximal reabsorption, and delivery of bicarbonate in normal euvolemic control Munich‐Wistar rats and rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis.

Adapted from refs. 78 and 80 and modified from Cogan and Rector 85
Figure 21. Figure 21.

SNGFR (upper left panel), glomerular ultrafiltrate bicarbonate concentration (lower left panel), and filtration, absolute proximal reabsorption, and distal delivery of bicarbonate (right panel) in Munich‐Wistar rats during chronic metabolic alkalosis and following administration of atrial natriuretic factor.

Adapted from ref. 72
Figure 22. Figure 22.

Absolute proximal bicarbonate reabsorption as function of filtered bicarbonate load during metabolic alkalosis. Shown are data from Munich‐Wistar rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis (open circles) and during superimposed moderate (open circle with enclosed cross) or severe (cross) aortic constriction, atrial natriuretic factor administration (open circle with enclosed letter A), or isohydric expansion with plasma (closed triangle) or Ringer's solution (closed inverted triangle), and acute metabolic alkalosis (closed square).

Adapted from refs. 72 and 78
Figure 23. Figure 23.

Net bicarbonate absorption (dashed lines and open figures) and proton secretion (solid lines and closed figures) during in vivo microperfusion at 15, 30, and 45 nl/min using perfusate bicarbonate concentration of either 25 or 40 mM in late proximal convoluted tubules of normal rats (squares and triangles) or rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis (circles). Shaded area represents passive component of bicarbonate absorption. Asterisks represent significant difference of net bicarbonate absorption and proton secretion during metabolic alkalosis compared to either normal group

From Liu and Cogan 235
Figure 24. Figure 24.

Plasma bicarbonate concentration as function of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in induction and repair or chronic metabolic alkalosis. A, data of normal rats (large closed circle) that were then subjected to no treatment (open circles), potassium deficiency (triangles, inverted triangles, and diamonds), and moderate (hexagons) or severe (squares) potassium plus chloride deficiencies. B, data of rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis caused by potassium and chloride deficiencies (large closed circle) that were then given potassium replacement (squares), chloride replacement (triangles), or both potassium and chloride replacement (open circles).

From Cogan and Liu 78
Figure 25. Figure 25.

Filtered bicarbonate load during induction and repair of chronic metabolic alkalosis in rat. For induction phase of chronic metabolic alkalosis, hatched bars represent normal control values and open bars the paired values following no treatment (group I), severe chloride plus potassium deficiency (group II), moderate chloride plus potassium deficiency (group III), and potassium deficiency induced by diet with (group IVA) or without (groups IVB and IVC) deoxycorticosterone. For repair phase of chronic metabolic alkalosis, hatched bars represent chronic metabolic alkalosis values and open bars the paired values following no treatment (group V), potassium replacement (group VI), chloride replacement (group VII), and both potassium and chloride replacement (group VIII).

Adapted from ref. 78
Figure 26. Figure 26.

Absolute proximal bicarbonate reabsorption in Munich‐Wistar rats subjected to acute or chronic changes in arterial CO2 tension.

Adapted from refs. 70 and 71 and reprinted from Cogan 73
Figure 27. Figure 27.

Temporal changes in plasma bicarbonate concentration, urine pH, and urinary net acid excretion in response to prolonged hypercapania in the rat.

Adapted from ref. 60


Figure 1.

Nephron mechanisms of acidification. Cellular mechanisms of acidification and bicarbonate secretion are shown (top) for proximal convoluted tubule (PCT), cortical collecting tubule (CCT), and medullary collecting tubule (MCT). Principal roles for nephron segments are shown (bottom) for reabsorbing bicarbonate and titrating ammonia and titratable buffers (A−).

Adapted from ref. 85


Figure 2.

Bicarbonate filtration, reabsorption, and delivery along rat nephron.

Adapted from refs. 52,58,69,73,74,80,81,103,104,106,111,150,171,226,251


Figure 3.

Axial profile of luminal bicarbonate concentration, rate of bicarbonate transport, and cumulative bicarbonate reabsorption as function of length in proximal convoluted tubule in Munich‐Wistar rat during hydropenia.

Adapted from ref. 233


Figure 4.

Ammonium filtration, transport, and delivery along rat nephron.

Adapted from refs. 33,51,52,150,170,187,190,319,342,343,346,353,385


Figure 5.

pH profile along rat nephron.

Adapted from refs. 33,51,52,102,104,105,106,145,151,170,190,267,342,343,385


Figure 6.

Titratable acid formation and delivery along rat nephron.

Adapted from refs. 33,52,150,170,190,192,342,343,385


Figure 7.

Net acid formation along rat nephron, based on values given in Figures 2, 4, and 6. Net acid at a given site is defined as ammonium plus titratable acid (TA) minus bicarbonate delivery at that site.



Figure 8.

Bicarbonate absorptive rate in early, S1 proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) (solid symbols) and late, S2 PCT (open symbols) in a control period and after systemic angiotensin II (ANG, squares), saralasin (SAR, hexagons), or vehicle (CON, circles) administration.

From Lin and Cogan 236


Figure 9.

Load‐dependency of bicarbonate transport in each millimeter of proximal convoluted tubule of Munich‐Wistar rat under free‐flow conditions. Dotted line from microperfusion data of Alpern et al. 12.

From Liu and Cogan 234


Figure 10.

A. Bicarbonate reabsorption as function of single nephron glomerular filtration rate in normal euvolemic (open circles) or volume‐expanded (closed circles) Munich‐Wistar rats. Dashed lines represent model predictions based on computer‐simulated model derived from in vivo microperfusion data.

Adapted from refs. 13 and 80 and reprinted from Cogan and Alpern 75.] B. Bicarbonate reabsorption as a function of filtered bicarbonate load in normal and acidotic Munich‐Wistar rats during contracted, normal, or expanded extracellular volume states. [Adapted from refs. 73,80, and 81 and reprinted from Cogan and Rector 85


Figure 11.

Bicarbonate reabsorption as function of SNGFR in euvolemic (open circles) or volume‐expanded (closed circles) Munich‐Wistar rats with metabolic alkalosis. Dashed lines represent model predictions based on computer‐simulated model derived from in vivo microperfusion data.

Adapted from refs. 13 and 78 and reprinted from Cogan and Alpern 75


Figure 12.

Distal bicarbonate delivery during metabolic acidosis. Shown are end‐proximal bicarbonate concentration (top) and absolute bicarbonate delivery out of proximal convoluted tubule (bottom) in Munich‐Wistar rats during progressive reduction in glomerular ultrafiltrate bicarbonate concentration, assuming SNGFR of ∼36 nl/min.

Adapted from refs. 80 and 84


Figure 13.

Net acid excretion in normal control and acid‐loaded Munich‐Wistar rats.

From Buerkert et al. 52


Figure 14.

Time course of plasma bicarbonate concentration, urine pH, and urinary net acid excretion during chronic ammonium chloride loading in normal humans.

Adapted from ref. 323


Figure 15.

SNGFR (upper left panel), glomerular ultrafiltrate bicarbonate concentration (lower left panel), and filtration, absolute proximal reabsorption, and distal delivery of bicarbonate (right panel) in Munich‐Wistar rats in a control state and following bicarbonate loading to achieve acute metabolic alkalosis.

Adapted from refs. 71,73,74,78,80,81,234


Figure 16.

Effects of hyperbicarbonatemia and alkalemia on proton secretion in late proximal convoluted tubule as function of mean luminal bicarbonate concentration during in vivo microperfusion.

Adapted from ref. 11 and modified from Cogan and Alpern 75


Figure 17.

Absolute bicarbonate reabsorption as function of proximal convoluted tubule length in Munich‐Wistar rats with normal systemic pH (triangles; treated with either atrial natriuretic factor or glucagon) and chronic metabolic alkalosis (circles) at comparable filtered bicarbonate loads.

From Liu and Cogan 234


Figure 18.

Reabsorbate bicarbonate concentration (absolute reabsorption of bicarbonate divided by absolute reabsorption of water) in Munich‐Wistar rat proximal convoluted tubule. Represented are data from rats with normal systemic pH that are hydropenic (open circle refs. 80,81,83), euvolemic (open hexagon; refs. 74,80,81,83), plasma expanded (closed hexagon; refs. 80 and 83), Ringer expanded (open and closed diamonds; refs. 80 and 83), saline expanded (closed triangle; refs. 80 and 84), or treated with atrial natriuretic factor (open hexagon with enclosed dot; ref. 73); with metabolic acidosis (ammonium chloride loading) that are hydropenic (open triangle; refs. 80 and 84) or euvolemic (open inverted triangle; refs. 79 and 84); with acute metabolic alkalosis (open square or closed circle; refs. 71,78, and unpublished observations) and during superimposed aortic constriction (open circle with enclosed cross; unpublished observations); with chronic metabolic alkalosis (open square with enclosed circle; refs. 71 and 78) and during superimposed isohydric Ringer expansion (open square with enclosed closed circle; ref. 78), isohydric plasma expansion (closed square; ref. 78), or atrial natriuretic administration (open circle with enclosed open square; ref. 72).



Figure 19.

Models for maintaining hyperbicarbonatemia. Shown are absolute proximal bicarbonate reabsorption as function of SNGFR (top) or filtered bicarbonate load (bottom) for normal rats (solid line) and for rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis (dashed lines) in which proximal acidification is either suppressed by alkalemia (curve A) or unaffected by alkalemia (curve B). Single and double arrows denote SNGFR or filtered bicarbonate load of inflection points of curve A and curve B, respectively, and therefore highest steady‐state SNGFR or filtered bicarbonate load that would obtain during maintenance phase of chronic metabolic alkalosis. See text for details.



Figure 20.

Plasma bicarbonate concentration, SNGFR, and filtration, proximal reabsorption, and delivery of bicarbonate in normal euvolemic control Munich‐Wistar rats and rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis.

Adapted from refs. 78 and 80 and modified from Cogan and Rector 85


Figure 21.

SNGFR (upper left panel), glomerular ultrafiltrate bicarbonate concentration (lower left panel), and filtration, absolute proximal reabsorption, and distal delivery of bicarbonate (right panel) in Munich‐Wistar rats during chronic metabolic alkalosis and following administration of atrial natriuretic factor.

Adapted from ref. 72


Figure 22.

Absolute proximal bicarbonate reabsorption as function of filtered bicarbonate load during metabolic alkalosis. Shown are data from Munich‐Wistar rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis (open circles) and during superimposed moderate (open circle with enclosed cross) or severe (cross) aortic constriction, atrial natriuretic factor administration (open circle with enclosed letter A), or isohydric expansion with plasma (closed triangle) or Ringer's solution (closed inverted triangle), and acute metabolic alkalosis (closed square).

Adapted from refs. 72 and 78


Figure 23.

Net bicarbonate absorption (dashed lines and open figures) and proton secretion (solid lines and closed figures) during in vivo microperfusion at 15, 30, and 45 nl/min using perfusate bicarbonate concentration of either 25 or 40 mM in late proximal convoluted tubules of normal rats (squares and triangles) or rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis (circles). Shaded area represents passive component of bicarbonate absorption. Asterisks represent significant difference of net bicarbonate absorption and proton secretion during metabolic alkalosis compared to either normal group

From Liu and Cogan 235


Figure 24.

Plasma bicarbonate concentration as function of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) in induction and repair or chronic metabolic alkalosis. A, data of normal rats (large closed circle) that were then subjected to no treatment (open circles), potassium deficiency (triangles, inverted triangles, and diamonds), and moderate (hexagons) or severe (squares) potassium plus chloride deficiencies. B, data of rats with chronic metabolic alkalosis caused by potassium and chloride deficiencies (large closed circle) that were then given potassium replacement (squares), chloride replacement (triangles), or both potassium and chloride replacement (open circles).

From Cogan and Liu 78


Figure 25.

Filtered bicarbonate load during induction and repair of chronic metabolic alkalosis in rat. For induction phase of chronic metabolic alkalosis, hatched bars represent normal control values and open bars the paired values following no treatment (group I), severe chloride plus potassium deficiency (group II), moderate chloride plus potassium deficiency (group III), and potassium deficiency induced by diet with (group IVA) or without (groups IVB and IVC) deoxycorticosterone. For repair phase of chronic metabolic alkalosis, hatched bars represent chronic metabolic alkalosis values and open bars the paired values following no treatment (group V), potassium replacement (group VI), chloride replacement (group VII), and both potassium and chloride replacement (group VIII).

Adapted from ref. 78


Figure 26.

Absolute proximal bicarbonate reabsorption in Munich‐Wistar rats subjected to acute or chronic changes in arterial CO2 tension.

Adapted from refs. 70 and 71 and reprinted from Cogan 73


Figure 27.

Temporal changes in plasma bicarbonate concentration, urine pH, and urinary net acid excretion in response to prolonged hypercapania in the rat.

Adapted from ref. 60
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Article Title: Renal Acidification: Integrated Tubular Responses
 

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Martin G. Cogan, Albert H. Quan. Renal Acidification: Integrated Tubular Responses. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 25: Handbook of Physiology, Renal Physiology: 970-1016. First published in print 1992. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp080122