Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Kidney and Bone: Physiological and Pathophysiological Relationships

Edward M. Brown

10.1002/cphy.cp080239

Source: Supplement 25: Handbook of Physiology, Renal Physiology

Originally published: 1992

Published online: January 2011

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Chemical and Cellular Composition of Bone
1.1 Extracellular Constituents of Bone
1.2 Bone Cells
2 Development and Structure of Bone
2.1 Endochondral Ossification
2.2 Intramembranous Ossification
3 Skeletal Growth and Modeling
3.1 Principles of Skeletal Growth
3.2 Skeletal Modeling
3.3 Epiphyseal Closure
3.4 Bone Cell Function and Skeletal Growth and Modeling
4 Bone Turnover and the Remodeling Cycle
4.1 Skeletal Remodeling
4.2 Cellular Control of Bone Remodeling
5 Fracture Healing
6 Bone Cell Function and Fracture Repair
7 Interrelationships of Kidney and Bone in Normal Physiology
7.1 General Considerations
7.2 Overall Calcium Balance
7.3 Hormonal Control of Mineral Ion Homeostasis
7.4 Role of the Parathyroid Glands in the Calcium Homeostatic System
7.5 Bone Cell Function and Ionic Homeostasis
7.6 Aspects of Renal Function Essential for Normal Skeletal Structure and Function and Ionic Homeostasis
8 Metabolic Bone Disease
8.1 Osteitis Fibrosa
8.2 Osteomalacia
8.3 Osteoporosis
9 Laboratory Evaluation of Metabolic Bone Disease
9.1 Direct Assays of Calcium‐Regulating Hormones in Blood
9.2 Clinical Assessment of the Function of Target Organs for Calcium‐Regulating Hormones
10 Abnormalities in Renal Function Leading to Skeletal Disease
10.1 Abnormalities in Renal Calcium Handling
10.2 Abnormalities in Renal Phosphate Handling
10.3 Hypo‐ and Hypermagnesemia Due to Renal Causes
10.4 Renal Tubular Acidosis
10.5 Primary Abnormalities in Vitamin D Metabolism
10.6 Renal Resistance to PTH: Pseudohypoparathyroidism
10.7 Chronic Renal Insufficiency
10.8 Pathophysiology of Renal Osteodystrophy
11 Disorders Affecting the Homeostatic Mechanisms Linking Kidney and Bone
11.1 Primary Hyperparathyroidism
11.2 Humoral Hypercalcemia of Malignancy
11.3 Hypoparathyroidism
11.4 Deficient Quantities and Action of Vitamin D
11.5 Hypervitaminosis D
11.6 Sarcoidosis and Other Granulomatous Diseases
12 Other Hormonal Abnormalities and Drugs Affecting Both Bone and Kidney
12.1 Calcitonin
12.2 Growth Hormone
12.3 Estrogen
12.4 Glucocorticoids
12.5 Insulin
12.6 Thyroid Hormones
13 Miscellaneous Associations Between Bone and Kidney
13.1 Disorders Affecting Both Kidney and Bone
13.2 Pharmacological Agents Affecting Both Kidney and Bone
14 Effects of Bone Disease on the Kidney
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Collagen fibrils show characteristic striated appearance with 640 Å repeat, which results from staggered arrangement of individual collagen molecules (arrows). Holes between end of one molecule and beginning of the next may represent a site where mineral ions are initially deposited during mineralization. Each collagen molecule in turn is made up of three intertwined polypeptide chains, each in α‐helical configuration (shown schematically at bottom left and on right).

From Tanzer 551
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Electron micrograph of osteoblast (upper right) showing abundant endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus (G), which is actively synthesizing and secreting collagen to form unmineralized osteoid overlying mineralized bone in lower left.

From Cooper 157
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Electron micrograph of osteocyte encased within lacuna in mineralized bone. Thin cytoplasmic processes (P) extend into narrow canaliculi within bone and maintain contact with nearby osteocytes or bone surface.

From Cooper 157
Figure 4. Figure 4.

A: electron micrograph of osteoclast engulfing spicule of mineralized bone (dark area, lower right). Ruffled cell border becomes closely apposed to bone surface and digests bone through process involving secretion of hydrogen ions and digestive enzymes. × 10,800. B: light micrograph showing several multinucleated osteoclasts in deep Howship's lacuna. × 300.

From Teitelbaum 556. Reproduced from Holtrop et al. 275, Journal of Cell Biology, 1974, 60: 346–355, by copyright permission of the Rockefeller University Press
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Primary ossification center in human radius.

From Ogden 418
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Light micrograph of epiphyseal growth plate, illustrating resting (R), proliferating (P), and hypertrophic (H) chondrocytes, as well as zones of provisional calcification (PC) and ossification (O).

From McKibbin 387
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Various representations of trabecular bone. A: digested specimen of trabecular bone, is shown schematically in B. Note that it is made up of interconnecting plates and rods of bone. C: a representative section through portion of B, illustrating origin of usual histological appearance of trabecular bone (D).

From Bullough 102
Figure 8. Figure 8.

A: Schematic representation of change in contour of end of a long bone (1) as it enlarges (2). B: demonstration of sequential addition of bone on outside surface of the diaphysis and inside surface of metaphysis as well as removal of bone from inside diaphysis and outside metaphysis that accomplishes this end.

From Enlow 190
Figure 9. Figure 9.

X‐ray films of playing (right) and nonplaying (left) arms of a professional tennis player. Note increased cortical area in the playing arm, which can result from greater cortical thickness and/or diameter.

From Jones et al. 295
Figure 10. Figure 10.

Several photographs of Robert Wadlow, later known as the “Alton giant”, who developed growth hormone excess at an early age, increasing in weight from 9 pounds at birth to 62 pounds at 1 year of age. He continued to grow throughout his life, reaching a height of 8 feet 11 inches and weight of 475 pounds shortly before his death at 22 years from cellulitis of the feet.

From Daughaday 163
Figure 11. Figure 11.

Schematic of events involved in remodeling cycle in cortical bone. Multinucleated osteoclasts (1) comprise the cutting cone that escavates bone. During subsequent reversal phase (2), osteoclasts disappear and osteoblasts differentiate from mesenchymal precursors, which then lay down new bone (3) to fill in all missing bone except for narrow central canal.

From Albright and Skinner 13
Figure 12. Figure 12.

Steps involved in fracture healing. During inflammatory phase, tissue response similar to that in other injured tissues takes place, with formation of hematoma and fibrin clot and mobilization of inflammatory cells. There is subsequent formation of trabecular bone by osteogenic cells arising either from intact periosteum or from mesenchymal precursors (reparative phase). This trabecular bone is then remodeled over a period of months to form cortical bone in this example of long bone fracture.

From Brand 70
Figure 13. Figure 13.

Example of calcium balance in hypothetical normal individual. Details of calcium fluxes in intestine, kidney, and bone are given in text. ECF, extracellular fluid.

From Brown 91
Figure 14. Figure 14.

Overall hormonal control of calcium homeostasis. Decreases in extracellular ionized calcium concentration stimulate parathyroid hormone (PTH) release, which, in concert with 1,25(OH)2D, modifies calcium and phosphate handling by kidney, intestine, and bone to restore calcium and phosphate concentrations toward normal in the extracellular fluid (ECF). Further details are given in text.

From Brown and LeBoff 93, with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel
Figure 15. Figure 15.

Homeostatic responses to hypophosphatemia in normal individual. Enhanced formation of 1,25(OH)2D increases efficiency of calcium and phosphate absorption from intestine and mobilizes these two ions from bone. Resulting increase in extracellular fluid (ECF) calcium suppresses parathyroid hormone (PTH) release, enhancing renal calcium clearance and reducing phosphate clearance to restore phosphate concentration toward normal while preventing hypercalcemia.
Figure 16. Figure 16.

Inverse, sigmoidal relationship between extracellular ionized calcium concentration and parathyroid hormone (PTH) release in normal human parathyroid tissue. a: data from four separate preparations of human parathyroid cells expressed as percent of maximal PTH release as a function of ionized calcium concentration in vitro. “Set‐point” refers to calcium concentration producing half‐maximal inhibition of PTH release. b: the four parameters that may be used to define such sigmoidal curves.

From Brown 87, with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel
Figure 17. Figure 17.

Comparison of relationship between extracellular calcium concentration and parathyroid hormone (PTH) release in normal human parathyroid cells (△), cells prepared from adenomas (□), and cells from tissue showing uremic secondary hyperplasia (◯).

From Brown and LeBoff 93, with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel
Figure 18. Figure 18.

Reabsorption of calcium by different segments of nephron, shown as percent of filtered load of calcium remaining in tubular fluid.

From Sutton and Dirks 541
Figure 19. Figure 19.

Calcium excretion as function of serum calcium concentration in normal subjects [solid line ± 2 SD (dotted lines)], hypoparathyroid individuals (△), and patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (•).

From Peacock et al. 437
Figure 20. Figure 20.

Relationship between serum levels of 1,25(OH)2D3 and 24,25(OH)2D3 and serum phosphorous concentration in thyropara‐thyroidectomized rats receiving diets containing varying amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Note inverse dependence of radioactive 1,25(OH)2D3 formed from tritiated 25(OH)D3 on serum phosphorous concentration.

From Tanaka and DeLuca 550
Figure 21. Figure 21.

Origins and fates of parathyroid hormone (PTH 1–84) and its principal fragments. PTH 1–84 is secreted by parathyroid glands and is metabolized to carboxy‐terminal (C‐term.) fragments by liver and kidney. Parathyroid glands also secrete C‐term. fragments. N‐terminal (N‐term.) fragments presumably are formed by processes that yield C‐term. fragments but are difficult to demonstrate in circulation of normal subjects. PTH 1–84 is cleared by liver, by glomerular filtration, and by peritubular uptake in kidney. N‐term. fragments may be cleared by glomerular filtration, peritubular uptake, and bone. C‐term. fragments are cleared only by glomerular filtration. ECF, extracellular fluid.

From Brown 89, in Divalent Ion Homeostasis, Churchill Livingstone, 1983, by permission
Figure 22. Figure 22.

Undecalcified histological section showing osteitis fibrosa in uremic bone. Osteoclasts (black arrow) and osteoblasts (white arrow) are plentiful, and osteoid (arrowhead) and peritrabecular fibrosis (F) are also abundant. × 180.

From Teitelbaum 555, in Divalent Ion Homeostasis, Churchill Livingstone, 1983, by permission
Figure 23. Figure 23.

Undecalcified section of osteomalacic bone from uremic patient showing osteomalacia with many thick osteoid seams (dark areas). × 180.

From Teitelbaum 555, in Divalent Ion Homeostasis, Churchill Livingstone, 1983, by permission
Figure 24. Figure 24.

Midsagittal sections through digested lumbar vertebrae of a young (upper) and an elderly (lower) woman.

From Avioli 33
Figure 25. Figure 25.

Relationship between urinary calcium‐to‐creatinine clearance ratio and creatinine clearance in subjects with familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (•) and typical primary hyperparathyroidism (◯).

From reference Aurbach et al. 31
Figure 26. Figure 26.

Marked growth retardation and bowing of lower extremities in two related boys with X‐linked hypophosphatemic rickets.

From Harrison and Harrison 254
Figure 27. Figure 27.

Circulating levels of 1,25(OH)2D3 in normal subjects (•) and in patients with vitamin D‐resistant rickets (VDRR) (▴) and vitamin D‐dependent rickets (VDDR) (▪).

Reprinted from Scriver et al. 496, by permission of The New England Journal of Medicine, 299: 976–980, 1978
Figure 28. Figure 28.

Characteristic appearance of mother and daughter with pseudohypoparathyroidism.

From Aurbach et al. 31
Figure 29. Figure 29.

Reduced levels of Gs activity in subjects with pseudohypoparathyroidism and Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy (+AHO). Gs activity is measured by its ability to activate adenylate cyclase in membranes of mutant mouse cells deficient in Gs. In contrast to subjects with AHO, those with pseudohypoparathyroidism without these phenotypic features have levels of Gs activity similar to those of normal controls.

From Aurbach et al. 31
Figure 30. Figure 30.

Factors that may contribute to development of secondary hyperparathyroidism in renal failure. Reduced functional renal mass, hyperphosphatemia and/or intracellular phosphate elevation, and perhaps acidosis contribute to decreased levels of 1,25(OH)2D. The latter decreases release of calcium from bone and reduces intestinal calcium absorption, resulting in hypocalcemia, which stimulates parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion and parathyroid cellular hyperplasia. Low levels of 1,25(OH)2D per se as well as decrease in level of receptor for 1,25−(OH)2D in parathyroid cells (not shown) probably also directly stimulate parathyroid function.

From Brown and LeBoff 93, with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel
Figure 31. Figure 31.

Comparison of epiphyseal growth plate of normal (A) and rachitic (B) rat tibia. Note thin, uniform layer of unmineralized cartilage in normal rat (wavy vertical line in middle) between metaphyseal spongiosa (left) and center of ossification in the epiphyseal cartilage (right). In rachitic rat there is failure of mineralization of growth plate, with a broad irregular zone of chondro‐osteoid separating metaphysis from center of ossification.

From Harrison and Harrison 256
Figure 32. Figure 32.

Appearance of two siblings, aged 7 and 3 years, with vitamin D‐dependent rickets type 2. Note total alopecia and skeletal deformities of rickets.

Courtesy of J. F. Rosen
Figure 33. Figure 33.

Temporal changes in serum calcium, 25(OH)D3, and 1,25(OH)2D3 concentrations in patient with sarcoidosis. Note that usual increase in 25(OH)D3 during summer months is accompanied by inappropriate increase in 1,25(OH)2D3, which then leads to hypercalcemia.

From Papapoulos et al. 428


Figure 1.

Collagen fibrils show characteristic striated appearance with 640 Å repeat, which results from staggered arrangement of individual collagen molecules (arrows). Holes between end of one molecule and beginning of the next may represent a site where mineral ions are initially deposited during mineralization. Each collagen molecule in turn is made up of three intertwined polypeptide chains, each in α‐helical configuration (shown schematically at bottom left and on right).

From Tanzer 551


Figure 2.

Electron micrograph of osteoblast (upper right) showing abundant endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus (G), which is actively synthesizing and secreting collagen to form unmineralized osteoid overlying mineralized bone in lower left.

From Cooper 157


Figure 3.

Electron micrograph of osteocyte encased within lacuna in mineralized bone. Thin cytoplasmic processes (P) extend into narrow canaliculi within bone and maintain contact with nearby osteocytes or bone surface.

From Cooper 157


Figure 4.

A: electron micrograph of osteoclast engulfing spicule of mineralized bone (dark area, lower right). Ruffled cell border becomes closely apposed to bone surface and digests bone through process involving secretion of hydrogen ions and digestive enzymes. × 10,800. B: light micrograph showing several multinucleated osteoclasts in deep Howship's lacuna. × 300.

From Teitelbaum 556. Reproduced from Holtrop et al. 275, Journal of Cell Biology, 1974, 60: 346–355, by copyright permission of the Rockefeller University Press


Figure 5.

Primary ossification center in human radius.

From Ogden 418


Figure 6.

Light micrograph of epiphyseal growth plate, illustrating resting (R), proliferating (P), and hypertrophic (H) chondrocytes, as well as zones of provisional calcification (PC) and ossification (O).

From McKibbin 387


Figure 7.

Various representations of trabecular bone. A: digested specimen of trabecular bone, is shown schematically in B. Note that it is made up of interconnecting plates and rods of bone. C: a representative section through portion of B, illustrating origin of usual histological appearance of trabecular bone (D).

From Bullough 102


Figure 8.

A: Schematic representation of change in contour of end of a long bone (1) as it enlarges (2). B: demonstration of sequential addition of bone on outside surface of the diaphysis and inside surface of metaphysis as well as removal of bone from inside diaphysis and outside metaphysis that accomplishes this end.

From Enlow 190


Figure 9.

X‐ray films of playing (right) and nonplaying (left) arms of a professional tennis player. Note increased cortical area in the playing arm, which can result from greater cortical thickness and/or diameter.

From Jones et al. 295


Figure 10.

Several photographs of Robert Wadlow, later known as the “Alton giant”, who developed growth hormone excess at an early age, increasing in weight from 9 pounds at birth to 62 pounds at 1 year of age. He continued to grow throughout his life, reaching a height of 8 feet 11 inches and weight of 475 pounds shortly before his death at 22 years from cellulitis of the feet.

From Daughaday 163


Figure 11.

Schematic of events involved in remodeling cycle in cortical bone. Multinucleated osteoclasts (1) comprise the cutting cone that escavates bone. During subsequent reversal phase (2), osteoclasts disappear and osteoblasts differentiate from mesenchymal precursors, which then lay down new bone (3) to fill in all missing bone except for narrow central canal.

From Albright and Skinner 13


Figure 12.

Steps involved in fracture healing. During inflammatory phase, tissue response similar to that in other injured tissues takes place, with formation of hematoma and fibrin clot and mobilization of inflammatory cells. There is subsequent formation of trabecular bone by osteogenic cells arising either from intact periosteum or from mesenchymal precursors (reparative phase). This trabecular bone is then remodeled over a period of months to form cortical bone in this example of long bone fracture.

From Brand 70


Figure 13.

Example of calcium balance in hypothetical normal individual. Details of calcium fluxes in intestine, kidney, and bone are given in text. ECF, extracellular fluid.

From Brown 91


Figure 14.

Overall hormonal control of calcium homeostasis. Decreases in extracellular ionized calcium concentration stimulate parathyroid hormone (PTH) release, which, in concert with 1,25(OH)2D, modifies calcium and phosphate handling by kidney, intestine, and bone to restore calcium and phosphate concentrations toward normal in the extracellular fluid (ECF). Further details are given in text.

From Brown and LeBoff 93, with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel


Figure 15.

Homeostatic responses to hypophosphatemia in normal individual. Enhanced formation of 1,25(OH)2D increases efficiency of calcium and phosphate absorption from intestine and mobilizes these two ions from bone. Resulting increase in extracellular fluid (ECF) calcium suppresses parathyroid hormone (PTH) release, enhancing renal calcium clearance and reducing phosphate clearance to restore phosphate concentration toward normal while preventing hypercalcemia.



Figure 16.

Inverse, sigmoidal relationship between extracellular ionized calcium concentration and parathyroid hormone (PTH) release in normal human parathyroid tissue. a: data from four separate preparations of human parathyroid cells expressed as percent of maximal PTH release as a function of ionized calcium concentration in vitro. “Set‐point” refers to calcium concentration producing half‐maximal inhibition of PTH release. b: the four parameters that may be used to define such sigmoidal curves.

From Brown 87, with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel


Figure 17.

Comparison of relationship between extracellular calcium concentration and parathyroid hormone (PTH) release in normal human parathyroid cells (△), cells prepared from adenomas (□), and cells from tissue showing uremic secondary hyperplasia (◯).

From Brown and LeBoff 93, with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel


Figure 18.

Reabsorption of calcium by different segments of nephron, shown as percent of filtered load of calcium remaining in tubular fluid.

From Sutton and Dirks 541


Figure 19.

Calcium excretion as function of serum calcium concentration in normal subjects [solid line ± 2 SD (dotted lines)], hypoparathyroid individuals (△), and patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (•).

From Peacock et al. 437


Figure 20.

Relationship between serum levels of 1,25(OH)2D3 and 24,25(OH)2D3 and serum phosphorous concentration in thyropara‐thyroidectomized rats receiving diets containing varying amounts of calcium and phosphorus. Note inverse dependence of radioactive 1,25(OH)2D3 formed from tritiated 25(OH)D3 on serum phosphorous concentration.

From Tanaka and DeLuca 550


Figure 21.

Origins and fates of parathyroid hormone (PTH 1–84) and its principal fragments. PTH 1–84 is secreted by parathyroid glands and is metabolized to carboxy‐terminal (C‐term.) fragments by liver and kidney. Parathyroid glands also secrete C‐term. fragments. N‐terminal (N‐term.) fragments presumably are formed by processes that yield C‐term. fragments but are difficult to demonstrate in circulation of normal subjects. PTH 1–84 is cleared by liver, by glomerular filtration, and by peritubular uptake in kidney. N‐term. fragments may be cleared by glomerular filtration, peritubular uptake, and bone. C‐term. fragments are cleared only by glomerular filtration. ECF, extracellular fluid.

From Brown 89, in Divalent Ion Homeostasis, Churchill Livingstone, 1983, by permission


Figure 22.

Undecalcified histological section showing osteitis fibrosa in uremic bone. Osteoclasts (black arrow) and osteoblasts (white arrow) are plentiful, and osteoid (arrowhead) and peritrabecular fibrosis (F) are also abundant. × 180.

From Teitelbaum 555, in Divalent Ion Homeostasis, Churchill Livingstone, 1983, by permission


Figure 23.

Undecalcified section of osteomalacic bone from uremic patient showing osteomalacia with many thick osteoid seams (dark areas). × 180.

From Teitelbaum 555, in Divalent Ion Homeostasis, Churchill Livingstone, 1983, by permission


Figure 24.

Midsagittal sections through digested lumbar vertebrae of a young (upper) and an elderly (lower) woman.

From Avioli 33


Figure 25.

Relationship between urinary calcium‐to‐creatinine clearance ratio and creatinine clearance in subjects with familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (•) and typical primary hyperparathyroidism (◯).

From reference Aurbach et al. 31


Figure 26.

Marked growth retardation and bowing of lower extremities in two related boys with X‐linked hypophosphatemic rickets.

From Harrison and Harrison 254


Figure 27.

Circulating levels of 1,25(OH)2D3 in normal subjects (•) and in patients with vitamin D‐resistant rickets (VDRR) (▴) and vitamin D‐dependent rickets (VDDR) (▪).

Reprinted from Scriver et al. 496, by permission of The New England Journal of Medicine, 299: 976–980, 1978


Figure 28.

Characteristic appearance of mother and daughter with pseudohypoparathyroidism.

From Aurbach et al. 31


Figure 29.

Reduced levels of Gs activity in subjects with pseudohypoparathyroidism and Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy (+AHO). Gs activity is measured by its ability to activate adenylate cyclase in membranes of mutant mouse cells deficient in Gs. In contrast to subjects with AHO, those with pseudohypoparathyroidism without these phenotypic features have levels of Gs activity similar to those of normal controls.

From Aurbach et al. 31


Figure 30.

Factors that may contribute to development of secondary hyperparathyroidism in renal failure. Reduced functional renal mass, hyperphosphatemia and/or intracellular phosphate elevation, and perhaps acidosis contribute to decreased levels of 1,25(OH)2D. The latter decreases release of calcium from bone and reduces intestinal calcium absorption, resulting in hypocalcemia, which stimulates parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion and parathyroid cellular hyperplasia. Low levels of 1,25(OH)2D per se as well as decrease in level of receptor for 1,25−(OH)2D in parathyroid cells (not shown) probably also directly stimulate parathyroid function.

From Brown and LeBoff 93, with permission of S. Karger AG, Basel


Figure 31.

Comparison of epiphyseal growth plate of normal (A) and rachitic (B) rat tibia. Note thin, uniform layer of unmineralized cartilage in normal rat (wavy vertical line in middle) between metaphyseal spongiosa (left) and center of ossification in the epiphyseal cartilage (right). In rachitic rat there is failure of mineralization of growth plate, with a broad irregular zone of chondro‐osteoid separating metaphysis from center of ossification.

From Harrison and Harrison 256


Figure 32.

Appearance of two siblings, aged 7 and 3 years, with vitamin D‐dependent rickets type 2. Note total alopecia and skeletal deformities of rickets.

Courtesy of J. F. Rosen


Figure 33.

Temporal changes in serum calcium, 25(OH)D3, and 1,25(OH)2D3 concentrations in patient with sarcoidosis. Note that usual increase in 25(OH)D3 during summer months is accompanied by inappropriate increase in 1,25(OH)2D3, which then leads to hypercalcemia.

From Papapoulos et al. 428
References
 1. Ackermann, P. G., G. Toro, W. B. Kountz, and T. Kheim. The effect of sex hormone administration on the calcium and nitrogen balance in elderly women. J. Gerontol. 9: 450–455, 1954.
 2. Adams, J. S., M. Fernandez, and M. A. Gacad. Vitamin D metabolite‐mediated hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria in patients with AIDS‐ and non‐AIDS–associated lymphoma. Blood 73: 235–239, 1989.
 3. Adams, J. S., O. P. Sharma, M. A. Gacad, and F. R. Singer. Metabolism of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D3 by cultured pulmonary alveolar macrophages in sarcoidosis. J. Clin. Invest. 72: 1856–1860, 1983.
 4. Adams, J. S., F. R. Singer, M. A. Gacad, et al. Isolation and structural identification of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 produced by cultural alveolar macrophages in sarcoidosis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 60: 960–966, 1985.
 5. Adinoff, A. D., and J. R. Hollister. Steroid‐induced fractures and bone loss in patients with asthma. N. Engl. J. Med. 309: 265–268, 1983.
 6. Agus, Z. S., J. B. Puschett, D. Senesky and M. Goldberg. Mode of action of parathyroid hormone and cyclic adenosine 3'‐5'‐monophosphate. J. Clin. Invest. 50: 617–626, 1971.
 7. Albright, F. Case records of the Massachusetts General Hospital. N. Engl. Med. J. 225: 789–791, 1941.
 8. Albright, F., C. H. Burnett, W. Parson, E. C. Reifenstein, Jr., and A. Roos. Osteomalacia and late rickets: the various etiologies met in the United States with emphasis on that resulting from a specific form of renal acidosis, the therapeutic indications for each etiological subgroup, and the relationship between osteomalacia and Milkman's syndrome. Medicine (Baltimore) 25: 399–479, 1946.
 9. Albright, F., C. H. Burnett, P. H. Smith, and W. Parson. Pseudohypoparathyroidism, an example of Seabright‐Bantam syndrome: report of three cases. Endocrinology 30: 922–932, 1942.
 10. Albright, F., A. M. Butler, and E. Bloomberg. Rickets resistant to vitamin D therapy. Am. J. Dis. Child. 54: 529–547, 1937.
 11. Albright, F., T. G. Drake, and H. W. Sulkowitch. Renal osteitis fibrosa cystica: report of case with discussion of metabolic aspects. Johns Hopkins Med. J. 60: 377–399, 1937.
 12. Albright, F., A. P. Forbes, and P. H. Henneman. Pseudo‐pseudohypoparathyroidism. Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians 65: 337–350, 1952.
 13. Albright, J. A., and H. C. W. Skinner. Bone: remodelling dynamics. In: The Scientific Basis of Orthopedics, edited by J. A. Albright and R. A. Brand. New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1979, p. 185–228.
 14. Alexandre, C. G., Riffat, C. Chappard, D. Chappard, and H. Fulchiron. Un cause rare d'hypercalcemie: l'hypercalcemie hypocalciurique familial. Nouv. Presse Med. 11: 2399–2403, 1982.
 15. Alfrey, A. C, N. L. Miller, and D. Butkus. Evaluation of body magnesium stores. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 84: 1153–1162, 1974.
 16. Alfrey, A. C., and C. C. Solomons. Bone pyrophosphate in uremia and its association with extraosseous calcification. J. Clin. Invest. 57: 700–705, 1976.
 17. Alfrey, A. C., C. C. Solomons, J. Ciricillo, and N. L. Miller. Extraosseous calcification: evidence for abnormal pyrophosphate metabolism in uremia. J. Clin. Invest. 57: 692–699, 1976.
 18. Alhava, E. M., M. Juuti, and P. Karajalainen. Bone mineral density in patients with urolithiasis. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 10: 154–156, 1976.
 19. Allgrove, J., J. Adami, R. M. Manning, and J. L. O'Riordan. Cytochemical bioassay of parathyroid hormone in maternal and cord blood. Arch. Dis. Child. 60: 110–115, 1985.
 20. Anast, C., J. L. Winnacker, L. R. Forte, and T. W. Burns. Impaired release of parathyroid hormone in magnesium deficiency. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 42: 707–717, 1976.
 21. Anderson, H. C. Introduction to the second conference on matrix vesicle calcification. Metab. Bone Dis. Rel. Res. 1: 83–87, 1978.
 22. Arnaud, C., F. Glorieux, and C. R. Scriver. Serum parathyroid hormone in X‐linked hypophosphatemia. Science 173: 845–847, 1970.
 23. Arnaud, C., R. Maijer, T. Reade, C. R. Scriver, and D. T. Whelan. Vitamin D dependency: an inherited postnatal syndrome with secondary hyperparathyroidism. Pediatrics 46: 871–880, 1970.
 24. Arnaud, S. B., R. S. Goldsmith, P. W. Lambert, and V. L. W. Go. 25‐Hydroxyvitamin D3: evidence for an enterohepatic circulation in man. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 149: 570–572, 1975.
 25. Arnold, A., and H. G. Kim. Clonal loss of one chromosome 11 in a parathyroid adenom J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 69: 496–499, 1989.
 26. Arnold, A., Staunton, C. E., Kim, H. G., Gaz, R. D., and H. M. Kronenberg. Monoclonality and abnormal parathyroid hormone genes in parathyroid adenomas. N. Engl. J. Med. 318: 658–662, 1988.
 27. Aschinburg, L. C, L. M. Solomon, P. M. Zeis, P. Justine, and I. M. Rosenthal. Vitamin D–resistant rickets associated with epidermal nevus syndrome: demonstration of a phosphaturic substance in the dermal lesions. J. Pediatr. 91: 56–60, 1977.
 28. Asher, M. A., C. B. Sledge, and M. J. Glimcher. The effect of inorganic orthophosphate on the rates of collagen formation and degradation in bone and cartilage in tissue culture. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metabl. 38: 376–389, 1974.
 29. Attie, M. F., J. R. Gill, Jr., J. L. Stock, A. M. Spiegel, R. W. Downs, Jr., M. A. Levine, and S. J. Marx. Urinary calcium excretion in familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia: persistence of relative hypocalciuria after induction of hypoparathyroidism. J. Clin. Invest. 72: 667–676, 1983.
 30. Au, W. Y. N. Inhibition by 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol of rat parathyroid gland in organ culture. Calcif. Tissue Int. 36: 384–391, 1984.
 31. Aurbach, G. D., S. J. Marx, and A. M. Spiegel. Parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and the calciferols. In: Textbook of Endocrinology (7th ed.), edited by J. D. Wilson and D. W. Foster. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1985, p. 1137–1217.
 32. Austin, L. A., and H. Heath III. Calcitonin: physiology and pathophysiology. N. Engl. J. Med. 305: 269–278, 1980.
 33. Avioli, L. V., Osteoporosis: pathogenesis and therapy. In: Metabolic Bone Disease, edited by L. V. Avioli and S. M. Krane. New York: Academic, 1977, vol. 1, p. 307–387.
 34. Baran, D. T., and M. L. Milne. 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D increases hepatocyte cytosolic calcium levels: a potential regulator of vitamin D–25‐hydroxylase. J. Clin. Invest. 77: 1622–1626, 1986.
 35. Barau, D. T., and T. W. Marcy. Evidence for a defect in vitamin D metabolism in a patient with incomplete Fanconi syndrome. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 59: 998–1001, 1984.
 36. Barbour, G. L., J. W. Coburn, E. Slatopolsky, A. W. Norman, and R. L. Horst. Hypercalcemia in an anephric patient with sarcoidosis: evidence for extrarenal generation of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D. N. Engl. J. Med. 305: 440–443, 1981.
 37. Baron, R., L. Neff, D. Louvard, and P. J. Courtoy. Cell‐mediated extracellular acidification and bone resorption: evidence for a low pH in resorbing lacunae and localization of a 100 kd membrane protein at the osteoclast ruffled border. J. Cell Biol. 100: 2210–2222, 1985.
 38. Barrett, D., N. A. Breslau, M. B. Wax, P. B. Molinoff, and R. W. Downs, Jr. New form of pseudohypoparathyroidism with abnormal catalytic adenylate cyclase. Am. J. Physiol. 257 (Endocrinol. Metab. 20): E277–E283, 1989.
 39. Barrett, P. Q., S. Teitelbaum, W. F. Neuman, and M. W. Neuman. The role of the liver in the peripheral metabolism of parathyroid hormone. In: Endocrinology of Calcium Metabolism, edited by D. H. Copp and R. V. Talmage. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1978, p. 324.
 40. Baylink, D. J. Glucocorticoid‐induced osteoporosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 309: 306–308, 1983.
 41. Beardsworth, L. J., D. R. Eyre, and I. R. Dickson. Changes with age in the urinary excretion of lysyl‐ and hydroxylysyl‐pyridinoline, two new markers of bone collagen turnover. J. Bone Miner. Res. 5: 671–676, 1990.
 42. Beck, N. Effect of metabolic acidosis on renal response to parathyroid hormone in phosphorous‐deprived rats. Am. J. Physiol. 241 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 10): F23–F27, 1981.
 43. Beck, N., H. Singh, and S. W. Reed. Pathogenic role of cyclic AMP in the impairment of urinary concentrating ability in acute hypercalcemia. J. Clin. Invest. 54: 1049–1055, 1974.
 44. Beck, N., and S. W. Webster. Effects of acute metabolic acidosis on parathyroid hormone action and calcium mobilization. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 127–131, 1976.
 45. Bell, N. H., S. Shaw, and R. T. Turner. Evidence that 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D inhibits the hepatic production of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D in man. J. Clin. Invest. 74: 1540–1544, 1984.
 46. Bell, N. H., P. H. Stern, E. Pantzer, T. K. Sinha, and H. E. DeLuca. Evidence that increased circulating 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D is the probable cause for abnormal calcium metabolism in sarcoidosis. J. Clin. Invest. 64: 218–225, 1979.
 47. Belsey, R., M. B. Clark, M. Bernat, J. Glowacki, M. F. Holick, H. F. DeLuca, and J. T. Potts, Jr. The physiologic significance of plasma transport of vitamin D and metabolites. Am. J. Med. 57: 50–56, 1974.
 48. Bennett, M. A., R. W. Heslop, and M. J. Meynell. Renal potassium wasting in hypercalcemia. Br. Med. J. 1: 679–680, 1967.
 49. Bennett, W. M., J. E. Musgrave, R. A. Campbell, D. Elliot, R. Cox, R. F. Brooks, E. W. Lovrien, R. K. Beals, and G. A. Porter. The nephropathy of the nail–patella syndrome: clinicopathologic analysis of 11 kindreds. Am. J. Med. 54: 304–319, 1973.
 50. Bergeron, J., L. Dubord, and C. Hausser. Membrane permeability as a cause of transport defects in experimental Fanconi syndrome. J. Clin. Invest. 57: 1181–1189, 1976.
 51. Berndt, T. J., and F. G. Knox. Effects of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin on electrolyte excretion in the rabbit. Kidney Int. 17: 473–478, 1980.
 52. Bertolini, D. R., G. E. Nedwin, T. S. Bringman, and G. R. Mundy. Stimulation of bone resorption and inhibition of bone formation in vitro by human tumor necrosis factors. Nature 319: 516–518, 1986.
 53. Biber, J. Cellular aspects of proximal tubular phosphate reabsorption. Kidney Int. 36: 360–369, 1989.
 54. Bilizekian, J. P., R. E. Canfield, T. P. Jacobs, J. S. Polay, A. P. D'Adamo, J. A. Eisman, and H. F. DeLuca. Response of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 to hypocalcemia in human subjects. N. Engl. J. Med. 299: 437–441, 1978.
 55. Bingham, P. J., I. A. Brazell, and M. Owen. The effect of parathyroid extract on cellular activity and plasma calcium levels in vivo. J. Endocrinol. 45: 387–400, 1969.
 56. Bingham, P. J., and L. G. Raisz. Bone growth in organ culture: effects of phosphate and other nutrients on bone and cartilage. Calcif. Tissue Res. 14: 31–48, 1974.
 57. Birnbaumer, M. E., A. B. Schneider, D. Palmer, D. A. Hanley, and L. M. Sherwood. Secretion of parathyroid hormone by abnormal parathyroid glands in vitro. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 45: 105–113, 1977.
 58. Blum, J. W., J. A. Fischer, D. Schwoerer, W. Hunziker, and U. Binswanger. Acute parathyroid hormone response: sensitivity, relationship to hypocalcemia and rapidity. Endocrinology 95: 753–759, 1974.
 59. Bonucci, E. The locus of initial calcification in cartilage and bone. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 78: 108–139, 1971.
 60. Bordier, C., C. Arnaud, C. Hawkes, S. Tun‐Chot, and D. Hioco. Relationship between serum immunoreactive parathyroid hormone, osteoclastic and osteocytic bone resorptions and serum calcium in primary hyperparathyroidism and osteomalacia. Amsterdam: Excerpta Med., 1970, p. 222–228. (Int. Cong. Ser. 270.).
 61. Bordier, P., H. Rasmussen, P. Marie, L. Miravet, J. Gueris, and A. Ryckwaert. Vitamin D metabolites and bone mineralization in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 46: 284–294, 1978.
 62. Bordier, P., A. Ryckwaert, J. Gueris, and H. Rasmusssen. On the pathogenesis of so‐called idiopathic hypercalciuria. Am. J. Med. 63: 398–409, 1977.
 63. Borle, A. B. Effects of purified parathyroid hormone on the calcium metabolism of monkey kidney cells. Endocrinology 83: 1316–1322, 1968.
 64. Bouillon, R., and P. DeMoor. Parathyroid function in patients with hyper‐ and hypothyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 38: 999–1004, 1974.
 65. Bouillon, R., and P. DeMoor. Parathyroid hormone secretion in primary hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 45: 261–269, 1977.
 66. Bourdeau, J. E., and M. B. Burg. Effect of PTH on calcium transport across the cortical thick ascending limb of Henle's loop. Am. J. Physiol. 239 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 8): F121–F126, 1980.
 67. Bouvier, M., and W. L. Hylander. Effect of bone strain on cortical bone structure in macaques (Macaca mulata). J. Morphol. 167: 1–12, 1981.
 68. Boyce, B. F., G. S. Fell, H. Y. Elder, B. J. Junor, H. L. Elliot, G. Beastall, I. Fogelman, and I. T. Boyle. Hypercalcemic osteomalacia due to aluminum toxicity. Lancet 2: 1009–1013, 1982.
 69. Boyde, A. Evidence against “osteocytic osteolysis.” Metab. Bone Dis. 2S: 239, 1980.
 70. Brand, R. A., Fracture healing. In: The Scientific Basis of Orthopedics, edited by J. A. Albright and R. A. Brand. New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1979, p. 289–311.
 71. Brandi, M. L., G. D. Aurbach, L. A. Fitzpatrick, R. Quarto, A. M. Spiegel, M. M. Blizoites, J. A. Norton, J. L. Doppman, and S. J. Marx. Parathyroid mitogenic activity in plasma from patients with familial multiple endocrine neoplasma type I. N. Engl. J. Med. 314: 1287–1292, 1986.
 72. Breslau, N. A., J. L. McGuire, J. E. Zerwehk, E. P. Frenkel, and C. Y. C. Pak. Hypercalcemia associated with increased serum calcitriol levels in three patients with lymphoma. Ann. Int. Med. 100: 1–7, 1984.
 73. Breslau, N. A., A. M. Moses, and C. Y. C. Pak. Evidence for bone remodelling but lack of calcium mobilization response to parathyroid hormone in pseudohypoparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 57: 638–644, 1983.
 74. Brinton, G. S., W. Juhiz, and L. D. Lagerquist. Hypertension in primary hyperparathyroidism: the role of the renin‐angiotensin system. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 41: 1025–1029, 1975.
 75. Broadus, A. E., Mineral metabolism. In: Endocrinology and Metabolism, edited by P. Felig, J. D. Baxter, A. E. Broadus, and L. A. Frohman. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1981, p. 963–1079.
 76. Broadus, A. E., Neprolithiasis. In: Endocrinology and Metabolism, edited by P. Felig, J. D. Baxter, A. E. Broadus, and L. A. Frohman. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1981, p. 1119–1172.
 77. Broadus, A. E., R. L. Horst, R. Lang, E. T. Littledike, and H. Rasmussen. The importance of circulating 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D in the pathogenesis of hypercalciuria and renal stone formation in primary hyperparathyroidism. N. Engl. J. Med. 302: 421–426, 1980.
 78. Broadus, A. E., R. L. Horst, J. E. Mahaffey, and H. Rasmusssen. Primary hyperparathyroidism with intermittent hypercalcemia: serial observations and simple diagnosis by means of an oral calcium tolerance test. Clin. Endocrinol. 12: 225–235, 1980.
 79. Broadus, A. E., K. L. Insogna, R. Lang, A. F. Ellison, and B. E. Dreyer. Evidence for disordered control of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D production in absorptive hypercalciuria. N. Engl. J. Med. 311: 73–80, 1984.
 80. Broadus, A. E., K. L. Insogna, R. Lang, L. E. Mallette, D. O. Oren, J. M. Gertner, A. S. Kliger, and A. F. Ellison. A consideration of the hormonal basis and phosphate leak hypothesis of absorptive hypercalciuria. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 58: 161–169, 1984.
 81. Broadus, A. E., J. S. Magee, L. E. Mallette, R. L. Horst, R. Lang, P. S. Jensen, J. L. Gertner, and R. Baron. A detailed evaluation of oral phosphate therapy in selected patients with primary hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 56: 953–961, 1983.
 82. Broadus, A. E., M. Mangin, K. Ikeda, K. C. Insogna, E. C. Weir, W. J. Burtis, and A. F. Stewart. Humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy: identification of a novel parathyroid‐hormone‐like peptide. N. Engl. J. Med. 319: 556–563, 1988.
 83. Bronner, F., Intestinal calcium absorption and transport. In: Membrane Transport of Calcium, edited by E. Carofoli. New York: Academic, 1982, p. 237–262.
 84. Brooks, M. H., N. H. Bell, L. Love, P. H. Stern, E. Orfie, S. F. Queener, A. J. Hamstra, and H. F. DeLuca. Vitamin D–dependent rickets type II: resistance of target organs to 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D. N. Engl. J. med. 298: 996–999, 1978.
 85. Brown, A. J., A. Dusso, S. Lopez‐Hilker, J. Lewis‐Finch, P. Grooms, and E. Slatopolsky. 1,25‐(OH)2D receptors are decreased in parathyroid glands of chronically uremic dogs. Kidney Int. 35: 19–23, 1989.
 86. Brown, E. M. Lithium induces abnormal calcium‐regulated PTH release in dispersed bovine parathyroid cells. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 52: 1046–1048, 1981.
 87. Brown, E. M. PTH secretion in vivo and in vitro: regulation by calcium and other secretagogues. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 8: 130–150, 1982.
 88. Brown, E. M. Four‐parameter model of the sigmoidal relationship between PTH release and extracellular calcium concentration in normal and abnormal parathyroid tissue. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 56: 572–581, 1983.
 89. Brown, E. M., Regulation of the synthesis, secretion, and actions of parathyroid hormone. In: Divalent Ion Homeostasis, edited by B. M. Brenner and J. H. Stein. New York: Churchill‐Livingtone, 1983, p. 151–188.
 90. Brown, E. M. Extracellular Ca2+‐sensing, the regulation of parathyroid cell function, and the role of Ca2+ and other ions as extracellular (first) messengers. Physiol. Rev. 71: 371–412, 1991.
 91. Brown, E. M., The physiology of calcium metabolism. In: Principles and Practices of Endocrinology and Metabolism, edited by K. L. Becker. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1990, 423–430.
 92. Brown, E. M., D. G. Gardner, M. F. Brennan, S. J. Marx, A. M. Spiegel, M. F. Attie, R. W. Downs, Jr., J. L. Doppman, and G. D. Aurbach. Calcium‐regulated parathyroid hormone release in primary hyperparathyroidism: studies in vitro with dispersed parathyroid cells. Am. J. Med. 66: 923–931, 1979.
 93. Brown, E. M. and M. S. LeBoff. Pathophysiology of hyperparathyroidism. In: Progress in Surgery, edited by S. Wells and M. Rothmund. Basel: Karger, 1986, vol. 18, p. 13–22.
 94. Brown, E. M., M. S. LeBoff, M. Oetting, J. T. Posillico, and C. Chen. Secretory control in normal and abnormal parathyroid tissue. Recent Prog. Horm. Res. 43: 337–374, 1987.
 95. Brown, E. M., R. Leombruno, J. Thatcher, and M. Burrowes. The acute secretory response to alterations in extracellular calcium concentration and dopamine in perifused bovine parathyroid cells. Endocrinology 116: 1123–1132, 1985.
 96. Brown, E. M., J. G. Thatcher, E. J. Watson, and R. Leombruno. Extracellular calcium potentiates the inhibitory effects of magnesium on parathyroid function in dispersed bovine parathyroid cells. Metabolism 33: 171–176, 1984.
 97. Brown, E. M., R. E. Wilson, R. C. Eastman, J. Pallotta, and S. P. Marynick. Abnormal regulation of parathyroid hormone release by calcium in secondary hyperparathyroidism due to chronic renal failure. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 54: 172–179, 1982.
 98. Brunette, M. G., J. Vary, and S. Carriere. Hyposthenuria in hypercalcemia: a possible role of intrarenal blood flow (IRBF) redistribution. Pflugers Arch. 350: 9–23, 1974.
 99. Buckalew, V. M., M. L. Purvis, M. G. Shulman, C. N. Herndon, and D. Rudman. Hereditary renal tubular acidosis. Medicine (Baltimore) 53: 229–254, 1974.
 100. Budayr, A. A., B. P. Halloran, J. C. King, D. Diep, R. A. Nissenson, and G. J. Strewler. High levels of parathyroid hormone‐like protein in milk. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86: 7183–7185, 1989.
 101. Budayr, A. A., R. A. Nissenson, R. F. Klein, G. J. Strewler, et al. Increased serum levels of a parathyroid hormonelike protein in malignancy‐associated hypercalcemia. Ann. Intern. Med. 111: 807–812, 1989.
 102. Bullough, P. G., Bone. In: Scientific Foundations of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, edited by R. Owen, J. Goodfellow, and P. G. Bullough. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1980, p. 3–10.
 103. Burnatowska, M. A., C. A. Harris, R. A. L. Sutton, and J. H. Dirks. Effect of PTH and cAMP on renal handling of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate in the hamster. Am. J. Physiol. 233 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 2): F514–F518, 1977.
 104. Burstein, P. J., B. Draznin, C. J. Johnson, and D. S. Schalch. The effect of hypothyroidism on growth, serum growth hormone, the growth hormone‐dependent somatomedin, insulin‐like growth factor, and its carrier protein in rats. Endocrinology 104: 1107–1111, 1979.
 105. Butler, A. M., Wilson, J. L., and S. Farber. Dehydration and acidosis with calcification of renal tubules. J. Pediatr. 8: 489–499, 1936.
 106. Byers, P. H., Disorders of collagen biosynthesis and structure. In: The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease (6th ed.), edited by C. R. Scriver, A. L. Beaudet, W. S. Sly, and D. Valle. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1989, p. 2805–2842.
 107. Canalis, E. Effect of insulin‐like growth factor I on DNA and protein synthesis in cultured rat calvaria. J. Clin. Invest. 66: 709–719, 1980.
 108. Canalis, E. Effect of platelet‐derived growth factor on DNA and protein synthesis in cultured rat calvaria. Metabolism 30: 970–975, 1981.
 109. Canalis, E. The hormonal and local regulation of bone formation. Endocr. Rev. 4: 62–77, 1983.
 110. Canalis, E. Interleukin‐1 has independent effects on deoxy‐ribonucleic acid and collagen synthesis in cultures of rat calvaria. Endocrinology 118: 74–81, 1986.
 111. Canalis, E., T. McCarthy, and M. Centrella. Growth factors and the regulation of bone remodeling. J. Clin. Invest. 81: 277–281, 1988.
 112. Cann, C. E., S. G. Prussin, and G. S. Gordon. Aluminum uptake by the parathyroid glands. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 49: 543–545, 1979.
 113. Canterbury, J. M., L. H. Bricker, G. S. Levey, P. L. Kozlovkis, E. Ruiz, J. E. Zull, and E. Reiss. Metabolism of bovine parathyroid hormone: immunological and biological characteristics of fragments generated by liver perfusion. J. Clin. Invest. 55: 1245–1253, 1975.
 114. Canterbury, J. M., S. Lerman, A. J. Claflin, H. Henry, A. W. Norman, and E. Reiss. Inhibition of parathyroid hormone secretion by 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol and 24,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol in the dog. J. Clin. Invest. 61: 1375–1383, 1978.
 115. Cantley, L. K., J. Russell, D. Littieri, and L. M. Sherwood. 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 suppresses parathyroid hormone secretion from bovine parathyroid cells in tissue culture. Endocrinology 117: 2115–2119, 1985.
 116. Carney, S., and J. Thompson. Acute effect of calcitonin on rat renal electrolyte transport. Am. J. Physiol. 240 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 9): F12–F16, 1981.
 117. Carone, F. A., F. H. Epstein, D. Beck, and H. Levithan. The effects upon the kidney of transient hypercalcemia induced by parathyroid extract. Am. J. Pathol. 36: 77–103, 1960.
 118. Carter, A., C. Bardin, R. Collins, C. Simons, P. Bray, and A. Spiegel. Reduced expression of multiple forms of the α‐subunit of the stimulatory GTP‐binding protein in pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1a. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84: 7266–7269, 1987.
 119. Castells, S., F. Greig, M. A. Fusi, L. Finberg, S. Yasumura, U. A. Liberman, C. Eil, and S. J. Marx. Severely deficient binding of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D to its receptor in a patient responsive to high doses of this hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 63: 252–256, 1986.
 120. Centrella, M., J. Massague, and E. Canalis. Human platelet‐derived transforming growth factor‐β stimulates parameters of bone growth in fetal rat calvariae. Endocrinology 119: 2306–2312, 1986.
 121. Chabardes, D., M. Imbert, A. Clique, M. Montegut, and F. Morel. PTH‐sensitive adenyl cyclase activity in different segments of the rabbit nephron. Pflugers Arch. 354: 229–239, 1975.
 122. Chabardes, D., M. Imbert‐Taboul, M. Montegut, A. Clique, and F. Morel. Distribution of calcitonin‐sensitive adenylate cyclase activity along the rabbit kidney tubule. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 73: 3608–3612, 1976.
 123. Chamay, A., and P. Tschantz. Mechanical influences in bone remodelling: experimental research on Wolff's law. J. Biomech. 5: 173–180, 1972.
 124. Chambers, T. J. Osteoblasts release osteoclasts from calcitonin induced quiescence. J. Cell Sci. 57: 247–260, 1982.
 125. Chambers, T. J. The effect of parathyroid hormone, 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol and prostaglandins on the cytoplasmic activity of isolated osteoclasts. J. Pathol. 137: 193–203, 1982.
 126. Chan, J. C. M., and U. Alon. Tubular disorders of acid base and phosphate metabolism. Nephron 40: 257–279, 1985.
 127. Chan, Yuk‐Luen, C. McKay, E. Dye, and E. Slatopolsky. The effect of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol on parathyroid hormone secretion by monolayer cultures of bovine parathyroid cells. Calcif. Tissue Int. 38: 27–32, 1986.
 128. Chantler, C., and M. A. Holliday. Growth in children with renal disease, with special reference to the effects of caloric malnutrition: a review. Clin. Nephrol. 1: 230–242, 1973.
 129. Chase, L. R., and G. D. Aurbach. The effect of parathyroid hormone on the concentration of adenosine 3',5'‐monophosphate in skeletal tissue in vitro. J. Biol. Chem. 245: 1520–1526, 1970.
 130. Chase, L. R., G. L. Melson, and G. D. Aurbach. Pseudohypoparathyroidism: defective excretion of 3',5'‐AMP in response to parathyroid hormone. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 56: 1138–1142, 1969.
 131. Chen, C. J., J. Barnett, and E. M. Brown. Divalent cations suppress adenosine monophosphate accumulation by stimulating a pertussis‐toxin–sensitive guanine nucleotide–binding protein in cultured bovine parathyroid cells. Endocrinology 124: 233–239, 1989.
 132. Chen, T. L., and D. Feldman. Distinction between alpha‐fetoprotein and intracellular estrogen receptors: evidence against the presence of estradiol receptors in rat bone. Endocrinology 102: 236–244, 1978.
 133. Chertow, B. S., G. A. Williams, R. M. Norris, G. R. Baker, and G. K. Hargis. Vitamin A stimulation of parathyroid hormone: interactions with calcium, hydrocortisone and vitamin E in bovine parathyroid tissues and effects of vitamin A in man. Eur. J. Invest. 7: 307–314, 1977.
 134. Chesney, R. W., Tubular defects in phosphate reabsorption in clinical medicine. In: Renal Handling of Phosphate, edited by S. G. Massry and H. Fleisch. New York: Plenum, 1980, p. 321–365.
 135. Chesney, R. W., A. J. Hamstra, H. F. DeLuca, S. Horowitz, E. F. Gilbert, R. Hong, and W. Bocherding. Elevated serum 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D concentrations in the hypercalcemia of sarcoidosis: correction by glucocorticoid therapy. J. Pediatr. 98: 919–922, 1981.
 136. Chesney, R. W., A. J. Hamstra, R. B. Mazess, H. F. DeLuca, and S. O'Reagan. Reduction of serum 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 in children receiving glucocorticoids. Lancet 2: 1123–1125, 1978.
 137. Chesney, R. W., B. S. Kaplan, M. Phelps, H. F. DeLuca. Renal tubular acidosis does not alter circulating values of calcitriol. J. Pediatr. 104: 51–55, 1984.
 138. Chesney, R. W., A. W. Moorthy, J. A. Eisman, D. K. Jax, R. B. Mazess, and H. F. DeLuca. Increased growth after long‐term oral 1,25‐vitamin D3 in childhood renal osteodystrophy. N. Engl. J. Med. 298: 238–242, 1978.
 139. Chong, G. C., O. H. Beahrs, G. W. Sizemore, and L. H. Woolner. Medullary carcinoma of the thyroid gland. Cancer 35: 695–704, 1975.
 140. Christiansen, C., P. C. Baastrup, and I. Transbol. Osteopenia and dysregulation of divalent cations in lithium‐treated patients. Neuropsychobiology 1: 344–354, 1975.
 141. Christiansen, C., P. C. Baastrup, and I. Transbol. Development of “primary” hyperparathyroidism during lithium therapy: longitudinal study. Neuropsychobiology 6: 280–283, 1980.
 142. Chyun, Y. S., and L. G. Raisz. Stimulation of bone formation by prostaglandin E2. Prostaglandins 27: 97–103, 1984.
 143. Clark, E. A., A. E. Goodship, and L. E. Lanyon. Locomotor bone strain as the stimulus for bone's mechanical adaptability. J. Physiol. 245: 57P, 1975.
 144. Clemens, T. L., J. A. Adams, S. L. Henderson, and M. F. Holick. Increased skin pigment reduces the capacity of skin to synthesize vitamin D3. Lancet 1: 74–76, 1982.
 145. Coburn, J. W., and S. G. Massry. Changes in serum and urinary calcium during phosphate depletion: studies on mechanism. J. Clin. Invest. 49: 1073–1087, 1970.
 146. Coburn, J. W., and E. Slatopolsky. Vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and renal osteodystrophy. In: The Kidney (3rd ed.), edited by B. M. Brenner and F. C. Rector Jr. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1986, p. 1657–1729.
 147. Coe, F. L. Magnitude of metabolic acidosis in primary hyperparathyroidism. Arch. Intern. Med. 134: 262–265, 1974.
 148. Coe, F. L., J. M. Canterbury, J. J. Firpo, and E. Reiss. Evidence for secondary hyperparathyroidism in idiopathic hypercalciuria. J. Clin. Invest. 52: 134–142, 1973.
 149. Coe, F. L., and M. J. Favus. Disorders of stone formation. In: The Kidney (7th ed.), edited by B. M. Brenner and F. C. Rector Jr. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1986, p. 1403–1442.
 150. Coe, F. L., and J. J. Firpo, Jr. Evidence for mild reversible hyperparathyroidism in distal renal tubular acidosis. Arch. Intern. Med. 135: 1485–1489, 1975.
 151. Coe, F. L., J. J. Firpo, D. L. Hollandsworth, L. Segil, J. M. Canterbury, and E. Reiss. Effect of acute and chronic metabolic acidosis on serum immunnoreactive parathyroid hormone in man. Kidney Int. 8: 262–273, 1975.
 152. Cohen, S. L., M. C. Fitzgerald, P. Fourman, W. J. Griffiths, and H. deWardener. Polyuria in hyperparathyroidism. Q. J. Med. 26: 423–431, 1957.
 153. Cohn, D. H., P. H. Byers, B. Steinman, and R. E. Gelinas. Lethal osteogenesis imperfecta resulting from a single nucleotide change in one human proα(I) collagen allele. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83: 6045–6047, 1986.
 154. Conlin, P. R., V. T. Fajtova, R. M. Mortensen, M. S. LeBoff, and E. M. Brown. Hysteresis in the relationship between serum ionized calcium and intact parathyroid hormone during recovery from induced hyper‐ and hypocalcemia in normal humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 69: 593–599, 1989.
 155. Cook, P. B., J. R. Nassim, and J. Collins. The effects of thyrotoxicosis upon the metabolism of calcium, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Q. J. Med. 28: 505–529, 1959.
 156. Cooper, L., J. Wertheimer, R. Levey, E. Brown, M. LeBoff, R. Wilkinson, and C. S. Anast. Severe primary hyperparathyroidism in a neonate with two hypercalcemic parents: management with parathyroidectomy and heterotopic auto‐transplantation. Pediatrics 78: 263–268, 1986.
 157. Cooper, R. R., The cell. In: The Scientific Basis of Orthopedics, edited by J. A. Albright and R. A. Brand. New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1979, p. 1–19.
 158. Costa, T., P. J. Marie, C. R. Scriver, D. Cole, T. Neade, B. Nogrady, F. Glorieux, and E. Delvin. X‐linked hypophosphatemia: effect of calcitriol on renal handling of phosphate, serum phosphate, and bone mineralization. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 52: 463–472, 1981.
 159. Costanzo, L. S., and E. E. Windhager. Calcium and sodium transport by the distal convoluted tubule of the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 235 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 4): F492–F506, 1978.
 160. Cowgill, L. D., S. Goldfarb, K. Lau, E. Slatopolsky, and Z. Agus. Evidence for an intrinsic renal defect in mice with genetic hypophosphatemic rickets. J. Clin. Invest. 63: 1203–1210, 1979.
 161. Crilly, R. G., M. Cawood, D. H. Marshall, and B. E. Nordin. Hormonal status in normal, osteoporotic, and corticosteroid‐treated postmenopausal women: J. R. Soc. Med. 71: 733–736, 1978.
 162. Cusworth, D. C., C. E. Dent, and C. R. Scriver. Primary hyperparathyroidism and hyperaminoaciduria. Clin. Chim. Acta 41: 355–361, 1972.
 163. Daughaday, W. H., The anterior pituitary. In: Williams Textbook of Endocrinology (7th ed.), edited by J. D. Wilson and D. W. Foster. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1985, p. 568–613.
 164. Dauphine, R. T., B. L. Riggs and D. A. Schalz. Back pain and vertebral crush fracture: an unrecognized mode of presentation for primary hyperparathyroidism. Ann. Intern. Med. 83: 365–367, 1975.
 165. Davidovitch, Z., J. L. Shanfeld, P. C. Montgomery, E. Lully, L. Luster, L. Furst, and E. Korostoff. Biochemical mediators of the effects of mechanical forces and electrical currents on mineralized tissues. Calcif. Tissue Int. 36: 586–597, 1984.
 166. Davies, D. R., C. E. Dent, and L. Watson. Tertiary hyperparathyroidism. Br. Med. J. 3: 395–399, 1968.
 167. Davies, M., P. S. Klimiuk, P. H. Adams, G. A. Lumb, D. M. Large, and D. C. Anderson. Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia and acute pancreatis. Br. Med. J. 282: 1023–1025, 1981.
 168. DeFronzo, R. A., and S. O. Their. Inherited disorders of renal tubule function. In: The Kidney (7th ed.), edited by B. M. Brenner and F. C. Rector Jr. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1986, p. 1297–1339.
 169. Delmas, P. D., L. Malaval, M. E. Arlot, and P. J. Meunier. Serum bone Gla‐protein compared to bone histomorphometry in endocrine diseases. Bone 6: 339–341, 1985.
 170. DeLuca, H. F., and H. K. Schnoes. Metabolism and mechanisms of action of vitamin D. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 45: 631–666, 1976.
 171. Dent, C. E., and J. M. Gertner. Hypophosphatemic osteomalacia in fibrous dysplasia. Q. J. Med. 45: 411–420, 1976.
 172. Dent, C. E., and C. J. Hodson. Radiological changes associated with certain metabolic bone diseases. Br. J. Radiol. 27: 605–618, 1954.
 173. deVernejoul, M. C., S. Marchais, G. London, J. Bielakoff, P. Chappuis, C. Morieux, and F. Llach. Desferoxamine test and bone disease in dialysis patients with mild aluminum accumulation. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 14: 124–130, 1989.
 174. Dietel, M., G. Dorn, R. Montz, and E. Altenahr. The effect of calcium and dibutyryl cAMP on the secretion of parathyroid hormone by human parathyroid adenomas in organ culture. Acta Endocrinol. (Copenh.) 85: 541–547, 1977.
 175. Dietrich, J. W., E. M. Canalis, D. M. Maina, and L. G. Raisz. Hormonal control of bone collagen synthesis in vitro: effects of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin. Endocrinology 98: 943–949, 1976.
 176. Dietrich, J. W., E. M. Canalis, D. M. Maina, and L. G. Raisz. Effects of glucocorticoids on fetal rat bone collagen synthesis in vitro. Endocrinology 104: 715–721, 1979.
 177. Downs, R. W., R. D. Sekura, M. A. Levine, and A. M. Spiegel. The inhibitory adenylate cyclase coupling protein in pseudohypoparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. 61: 351–354, 1985.
 178. Drezner, M. K., and M. N. Feinglos. Osteomalacia due to 1α,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol deficiency. J. Clin. Invest. 60: 1046–1053, 1977.
 179. Drezner, M. K., K. W. Lyles, M. R. Haussler, and J. Harrelson. Evaluation of a role for 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 in the pathogenesis and treatment of X‐linked hypophosphatemic rickets and osteomalacia. J. Clin. Invest. 66: 1020–1032, 1980.
 180. Drezner, M. K., F. A. Neelon, M. Haussler, H. T. McPherson, and H. E. Lebovitz. 1,25‐Dihydroxycholecalciferol deficiency: the probable cause of hypocalcemia and metabolic bone disease in pseudohypoparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 42: 621–628, 1976.
 181. Drezner, M. K., F. A. Neelon, J. Jowsey, and H. E. Lebovitz. Hypoparathyroidism: a possible cause of osteomalacia. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 45: 114–122, 1977.
 182. Drezner, M. K., F. A. Neelon, and H. E. Lebovitz. Pseudohypoparathyroidism type II: a possible defect in the recognition of the cyclic AMP signal. N. Engl. J. Med. 289: 1056–1060, 1973.
 183. Dziak, R., and P. H. Stern. Calcium transport in isolated bone cells. III. Effects of parathyroid hormone and cyclic 3',5'‐AMP. Endocrinology 97: 128–137, 1975.
 184. Earp, H. S., R. L. Ney, H. J. Gitelman, R. Richman, and H. F. DeLuca. Effects of 25‐hydroxyycholecalciferol in patients with familial hypophosphatemia and vitamin D–resistant rickets. N. Engl. J. Med. 283: 627–630, 1970.
 185. Ecarot‐Charrier, B., F. H. Glorieux, R. Travers, M. Desbarats, F. Bouchard, and A. Hinek. Defective bone formation by transplanted hyp mouse bone cells into normal mice. Endocrinology 123: 768–773, 1988.
 186. Edrall, C. A. Renal function in hyperparathyroidism: a clinical study of 30 cases with special reference to selective renal clearance and renal vein catheterization. Acta Chir. Scand. 229 (Suppl.): 1–56, 1958.
 187. Eggleston, M. G., and S. Schuster. The effect of insulin in the excretion of glucose and phosphate by the kidney of the rat. J. Physiol. 124: 623–630, 1954.
 188. Eisenberg, E. Effects of serum calcium level and parathyroid extracts in phosphate and calcium excretion in hypoparathyroid patients. J. Clin. Invest. 44: 942–946, 1965.
 189. Emanuel, B., R. Nachmman, N. Aronson, and H. Weiss. Congenital solitary kidney: a review of 74 cases. Am. J. Dis. Child. 127: 17–25, 1974.
 190. Enlow, D. H., Dynamics of skeletal growth and remodelling. In: Scientific Foundations of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, edited by R. Owen, J. Goodfellow, and P. G. Bullough. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1980, p. 185–192.
 191. Epstein, F. H. Calcium and the kidney. Am. J. Med. 45: 700–713, 1968.
 192. Erickson, E., N. Berg, M. Graham, K. Mann, T. Spelsberg, and B. Riggs. Evidence of estrogen receptors in human bone cells. J. Bone Min. Res. 2 (Suppl. I): 238A, 1987.
 193. Espinosa, R. E., M. J. Keller, A. N. K. Yusuf, and T. P. Dousa. Effect of thyroxine administration on phosphate transport across renal cortical brush border membrane. Am. J. Physiol. 246 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 15): F133–F139, 1984.
 194. Estep, H., W. A. Shaw, C. Watlington, R. Hube, W. Holland, and St. G. Tucker. Hypocalcemia due to hypomagnesemia and reversible parathyroid hormone unresponsiveness. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 29: 842–848, 1969.
 195. Evans, R. A., Carter, J. W., C. R. P. George, R. S. Walls, R. C. Newland, G. D. McDonnell, and J. R. Lawrence. The congenital “magnesium‐losing kidney”: report of two patients. Qu. J. Med. 197: 39–52, 1981.
 196. Fanconi, A., J. A. Fischer, and A. Prader. Serum parathyroid hormone concentrations in hypophosphatemic vitamin D–resistant rickets. Helv. Paediatr. Acta 29: 187–194, 1974.
 197. Farese, R. V. Phosphoinositide metabolism and hormone action. Endocr. Rev. 4: 74–95, 1983.
 198. Farfel, Z., A. S. Brickman, H. R. Kaslow, V. M. Brother, and H. R. Bourne. Defect of receptor coupling protein in pseudohypoparathyroidism. N. Engl. J. Med. 303: 237–242, 1980.
 199. Fell, H. The osteogenic capacity in vitro of periosteum and endosteum isolated from limb skeleton of fowl embryos and young chicks. J. Anat. 66: 157–180, 1932.
 200. Felsenfeld, A. J., J. M. Harrelson, R. A. Gutman, S. A. Wells, Jr., and M. K. Drezner. Osteomalacia after parathyroidectomy in patients with uremia. Ann. Intern. Med. 96: 34–39, 1984.
 201. Felts, W. The prenatal development of the human femur. Am. J. Anat. 94: 1–44, 1954.
 202. Ferris, R., M. Kashgarian, H. Levitan, I. Brandt, and F. H. Epstein. Renal tubular acidosis and renal potassium wasting acquired as a result of hypercalcemic nephropathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 265: 924–928, 1961.
 203. Fialkow, P. J., C. J. Jackson, and M. A. Block. Multicellular origin of human parathyroid “adenomas.” N. Engl. J. Med. 297: 696–698, 1977.
 204. Field, M. H., and E. Reiss. Vitamin D–resistant rickets: the effects of calcium infusion on phosphate reabsorption. J. Clin. Invest. 39: 1807–1812, 1960.
 205. Fischer, J. A., Biologically inactive parathyroid hormone in pseudohypoparathyroidism type I (PHP‐1). In: Hormonal Control of Calcium Metabolism, edited by D. V. Cohn, R. V. Talmadge, and L. J. Matthews. Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1980, p. 142.
 206. Fischer, J. A., and J. W. Blum. Noncalcium control of parathyroid hormone secretion. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 3: 158–166, 1980.
 207. Foley, T. P., H. C. Harrison, C. D. Arnaud, and H. E. Harrison. Familial benign hypercalcemia. J. Pediatr. 81: 1060–1067, 1972.
 208. Forest, J. N., Jr., A. D. Cohen, J. Terretti, J. M. Himmelhoch, and F. H. Epstein. On the mechanism of lithiuminduced diabetes insipidus in man and rat. J. Clin. Invest. 53: 1115–1123, 1974.
 209. Fox, J., E. M. W. Maunder, V. A. Ranall, and A. D. Care. Vitamin D dependent rickets type I in pigs. Clin. Sci. 69: 541–548, 1985.
 210. Frame, B., C. E. Jackson, W. A. Reynolds, and J. E. Humphrey. Hypercalcemia and skeletal effects in chronic hypervitaminosis A. Ann. Intern. Med. 80: 44–48, 1974.
 211. Frascino, J. A., P. Vanamea, and P. P. Rosen. Renal oxalosis and azotemia after methoxyfluorane in man. N. Engl. Med. J. 283: 676–679, 1970.
 212. Fraser, D. R., and E. Kodicek. Regulation of 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol‐hydroxylase activity in kidney by parathyroid hormone. Nature [New Biol.] 241: 163–166, 1973.
 213. Fraser, D., S. W. Kooh, H. P. Kind, M. F. Holick, Y. Tanaka, and H. F. DeLuca. Pathogenesis of hereditary vitamin D–dependent rickets. N. Engl. J. Med. 289: 817–822, 1973.
 214. Freitag, J., K. J. Martin, K. A. Kruska, C. Anderson, M. Conrades, J. Ladenson, S. Klahr, and E. Slatopolsky. Impaired parathyroid hormone metabolism in patients with chronic renal failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 298: 29–32, 1978.
 215. Friedman, E., K. Sakaguchi, A. E. Bale, A. Falchetti, E. Streeten, M. B. Zimering, L. S. Weinstein, W. O. McBride, Y. Nakamura, M.‐L. Brandi, J. A. Norton, G. D. Aurbach, A. M. Spiegel, and S. J. Marx. Clonality of parathyroid tumors in familial multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1. N. Engl. J. Med. 321: 213–218, 1989.
 216. Froesch, E. R., J. Zapf, T. K. Audhya, E. Ben‐Porath, B. J. Segan, and K. D. Gibson. Non‐suppressible insulin‐like activity and thyroid hormones: major pituitary‐dependent sulfation factors for chick embryo cartilage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 73: 2901–2908, 1976.
 217. Frost, H. M. Bone Remodelling and Its Relation to Metabolic Bone Disease. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas, 1973.
 218. Gallagher, J. C., and R. Wilkinson. The effect of ethinylestradiol on calcium and phosphorus metabolism of postmenopausal women with primary hyperparathyroidism. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 45: 785–802, 1973.
 219. Garn, S. M., G. G. Rohmann, B. Wagner, G. H. Davila, and W. Ascoli. Population similarities in the onset and rate of adult endosteal bone loss. Clin. Orthop. 65: 51–60, 1969.
 220. Garrett, R. I., B. G. M. Duric, G. E. Nedwin, A. Gillespie, T. Bringman, M. Sabatini, D. R. Bentolini, and G. R. Mundy. Production of the bone‐resorbing cytokine lymphotoxin by cultured human myeloma cells. N. Engl. J. Med. 317: 526–532, 1987.
 221. Gehron‐Robey, P., M. F. Young, L. W. Fisher, and T. D. McClain. Thrombospondin is an osteoclast‐derived component of mineralized extracellular matrix. J. Cell Biol. 108: 719–727, 1988.
 222. Genant, H. K., C. Cann, B. Ettinger, and G. S. Gordan. Quantitative computed tomography of vertebral spongiosa: a sensitive method for detecting early bone loss after oophorectomy. Ann. Intern. Med. 97: 699–705, 1982.
 223. Gherardi, G., A. Poggi, S. Sisca, V. Calderaro, and E. Bonucci. Bone oxalosis and renal osteodystrophy. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 104: 105–111, 1980.
 224. Glorieux, F. H., C. L. Morin, R. Travers, E. E. Delvin, and R. Poirier. Intestinal phosphate transport in familial hypophosphatemic rickets. Pediatr. Res. 10: 691–696, 1976.
 225. Glorieux, F., and C. R. Scriver. Loss of a parathyroid hormone sensitive component of phosphate transport in X‐linked hypophosphatemia. Science 175: 997–999, 1972.
 226. Glorieux, F. H., C. R. Scriver, E. M. Eicher, J. L. Southard, and R. Travers. X‐linked hypophosphatemia in HYP/Y mouse: a model of the human disease. Pediatr. Res. 8: 389A, 1974.
 227. Glowacki, J., J. B. Lian. Impaired recruitment of osteoclast progenitors by osteocalcin‐deficient bone implants. In: The Chemistry and Biology of Mineralized Tissues, edited by W. T. Butter. Birmingham: Ebsco Media, 1985, p. 164–169.
 228. Gold, L. W., S. G. Massry, A. I. Arieff, and J. W. Coburn. Renal bicarbonate wasting during phosphate depletion: a possible cause of altered acid–base homeostasis in hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Invest. 52: 2556–2561, 1973.
 229. Goldberg, E., S. T. Winter, O. S. Belter, and A. Berger. Transient neonatal hyperparathyroidism associated with maternal hypoparathyroidism. Isr. J. Med. Sci. 12: 199–201, 1976.
 230. Golden, P., R. Mazey, A. Greenwalt, K. Martin, and E. Slatopolsky. Vitamin D: a direct effect on the parathyroid gland? Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 2: 1–6, 1979.
 231. Goldring, S. R., J. E. Mahaffey, M. Rosenblatt, J. M. Dayer, J. T. Potts, and S. M. Krane. Parathyroid hormone inhibitors: comparison of biological activity in bone‐ and skin‐derived tissue. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 48: 655–659, 1979.
 232. Goltzman, D. Examination of the requirement of metabolism of parathyroid hormone in skeletal tissue before biological action. Endocrinology 102: 1555–1562, 1978.
 233. Goltzman, D., B. Henderson, and N. Loveridge. Cytochemical bioassay of parathyroid hormone: characteristics of the assay and analysis of circulating hormonal forms. J. Clin. Invest. 65: 1309–1317, 1980.
 234. Goltzman, D., A. F. Stewart, and A. E. Broadus. Malignancy‐associated hypercalcemia: evaluation with a cytochemical bioassay for parathyroid hormone. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 53: 899–904, 1981.
 235. Goodman, A. D., J. Lemann, Jr., E. J. Lennon, and A. J. Relman. Production, excretion, and metabolism of fixed acid in patients with renal acidosis. J. Clin. Invest. 44: 495–506, 1965.
 236. Gowen, M., G. Nedwin, and G. R. Mundy. Preferential inhibition of cytokine stimulated bone resorption by recombinant interferon gamma. J. Bone Miner. Res. 1: 469–474, 1986.
 237. Gowen, M., O. D. Wood, E. J. Ihrie, M. K. B. McGuire, and R. G. Russell. An interleukin I like factor stimulates bone resorption in vitro. Nature 306: 378–380, 1983.
 238. Grant, F. R., P. R. Conlin, and E. M. Brown. Rate and concentration dependence of parathyroid hormone dynamics during stepwise changes in serum ionized calcium in normal humans. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 71: 370–378, 1990.
 239. Grant, M. E., and D. Prockop. The biosynthesis of collagen [three parts]. N. Engl. J. Med. 286: 194–199, 242–249, 291–300, 1972.
 240. Gray, T. K., G. E. lester, and R. S. Lorene. Evidence for extra‐renal 1‐alpha‐hydroxylation of 25(OH)D3 in pregnancy. Science 204: 1311–1313, 1979.
 241. Greenwald, I., and J. Gross. The effect of the administration of a potent parathyroid extract upon the excretion of nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium, with some remarks on the solubility of calcium phosphate in serum and on the pathogenesis of tetany. J. Biol. Chem. 66: 217–227, 1924.
 242. Gundberg, C. M., N. E. C. Cole, J. B. Lian, T. M. Reade, P. M. Gallop. Serum osteocalcin in the treatment of inherited rickets with 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 56: 1063–1067, 1983.
 243. Habener, J. F. Responsiveness of neoplastic and hyperplastic parathyroid tissue to calcium in vitro. J. Clin. Invest. 62: 436–450, 1978.
 244. Habener, J. F. Regulation of parathyroid hormone secretion and biosynthesis. Annu. Rev. Physiol. 43: 211–224, 1981.
 245. Habener, J. F., and J. T. Potts, Jr. Relative effectiveness of magnesium and calcium in the secretion and biosynthesis of parathyroid hormone in vitro. Endocrinology 98: 197–202, 1976.
 246. Hahn, T. J., L. R. Halstead, and D. T. Baron. Effects of short‐term glucocorticoid administration on intestinal calcium absorption and circulating vitamin D metabolite concentrations in man. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 52: 111–115, 1981.
 247. Halloran, B. P., D. D. Bikle, M. J. Levens, M. E. Castro, R. K. Globus, and E. Holton. Chronic 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 administration in the rat reduces the serum concentration of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D by increasing metabolic clearance rate. J. Clin. Invest. 78: 622–628, 1976.
 248. Hanna, S., M. T. Harrison, I. MacIntyre, and R. Fraser. Effects of growth hormone on calcium and magnesium metabolism. Br. Med. J. 2: 12–15, 1961.
 249. Haramati, A., and F. G. Knox. Is phosphate reabsorbed in the distal nephron? Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 6: 165–173, 1981.
 250. Harris, C. A., M. A. Burnatowska, J. F. Seely, R. A. L. Sutton, G. A. Quamme, and J. H. Dirks. Effects of parathyroid hormone on electrolyte transport in the hamster nephron. Am. J. Physiol. 236 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 5): F342–F348, 1979.
 251. Harrison, H. C., and H. E. Harrison. Inhibition of vitamin D–stimulated active transport of calcium of rat intestine by diphenylhydantoin‐phenobarbital treatment. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 153: 220–224, 1976.
 252. Harrison, H. E., and H. C. Harrison. The effect of acidosis upon the renal tubular reabsorption of phosphate. Am. J. Physiol. 134: 781–788, 1941.
 253. Harrison, H. E., and H. C. Harrison. Transfer of Ca++ across intestinal wall in vitro in relation to action of vitamin D and cortisol. Am. J. Physiol. 199: 265–271, 1960.
 254. Harrison, H. E., and H. C. Harrison. Disorders of calcium and phosphate metabolism in childhood and adolescence. In: Problems in Clinical Pediatrics, edited by A. J. Schaffer and M. Markowitz. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1979, vol. XX, 141–256.
 255. Harrison, H. E., and H. C. Harrison. In: Problems in Clinical Pediatrics, edited by A. J. Schaffer and M. Markowitz. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1979, vol. XX, p 182–192.
 256. Harrison, H. E., and H. C. Harrison. In: Pediatrics (5th ed.), edited by H. L. Barnett. New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1972, p. 195–214.
 257. Hauschka, P. V., and M. Reid. Vitamin K–dependence of a calcium‐binding protein containing γ‐carboxyglutamic acid in chicken bone. J. Biol. Chem. 253: 9063–9068, 1978.
 258. Haussler, M. R., M. Hughes, D. Bylink, E. Littledike, D. Cork, and M. Pitt. Influence of phosphate depletion on the biosynthesis and circulating level of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 81: 233–250, 1977.
 259. Heath, H. III. Biogenic amines and the secretion of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin. Endocr. Rev. 1: 319–338, 1980.
 260. Heath, H. III., S. F. Hodgson, M. A. Kennedy. Primary hyperparathyroidism: incidence, morbidity, and potential economic impact in a community. N. Engl. J. Med. 302: 189–193, 1980.
 261. Heath, H. III., L. J. Melton, and C. P. Chu. Diabetes mellitus and risk of skeletal fracture. N. Engl. J. Med. 303: 567–570, 1980.
 262. Henderson, R. G., R. G. G. Russell, J. G. G. Ledingham, R. Smith, D. D. Oliver, R. J. Walton, D. G. Small, C. Preston, G. T. Warren, and A. W. Norman. Effects of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol on calcium absorption, muscle weakness, and bone disease in chronic renal failure. Lancet 1: 379–384, 1974.
 263. Hendrix, J. Z. The remission of hypercalcemia and hypercalciuria in sarcoidosis by vitamin D depletion. Clin. Res. 11: 220A, 1963.
 264. Henneman, P. H., A. P. Forbes, M. Moldawer, E. F. Dempsey, and E. L. Carroll. Effects of human growth hormone in man. J. Clin. Invest. 39: 1223–1238, 1960.
 265. Henry, H. L, A. N. Taylor, and A. W. Norman. Response of chick parathyroid glands to the vitamin D metabolites 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol and 24,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol. J. Nutr. 107: 1918–1926, 1977.
 266. Herring, G. M., and P. W. Kent. Some studies on mucosubstances of bovine cortical bone. Biochem. J. 89: 405–414, 1963.
 267. Hestbach, J., H. E. Hanson, A. Amdison, and J. Olsen. Chronic renal lesions following long‐term treatment with lithium. Kidney Int. 12: 205–213, 1977.
 268. Highman, J. H., P. H. Sanderson, and M. M. L. Sutcliffe. Vitamin D‐resistant osteomalacia as a cause of cord compression. Q. J. Med. 39: 529–537, 1970.
 269. Hill, G. S., L. Morel‐Maroger, J. P. Merry, J. C. Brouet, and F. Mignon. Renal lesions in multiple myeloma; their relationship to associated protein abnormalities. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2: 423–438, 1983.
 270. Hill, L. F., G. A. Lumb, E. B. Mawer, and S. W. Stanbury. Indirect inhibition of the biosynthesis of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol in rats treated with diphosphonate. Clin. Sci. 44: 335–337, 1973.
 271. Hirst, M. A., H. I. Hochman, and D. Feldman. Vitamin D resistance and alopecia: a kindred with normal dihydroxyvitamin D3 binding but decreased receptor affinity for deoxyribonucleic acid. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 60: 490–495, 1985.
 272. Holick, M. F., and M. B. Clark. The photogenesis and metabolism of vitamin D. Federation Proc. 37: 2567–2574, 1978.
 273. Holick, M. F., J. Nussbaum, and K. S. Persons. PTH‐like hypercalcemia factor (HCF) of malignancy may be an epidermal differentiation factor: synthetic hHCF(1–34)NH2 inhibits proliferation and induces terminal differentiation of cultured human keratinocytes. The American Society of Bone and Mineral Research, 10th Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, 1988, p. 214 (abstract 582).
 274. Holtrop, M. E., and G. J. King. The ultrastructure of the osteoclast and its functional implications. Clin. Orthop. 123: 177–196, 1977.
 275. Holtrop, M. E., L. G. Raisz, and H. Simmons. The effects of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin on the ultrastructure and the activity of osteoclasts in organ culture. J. Cell Biol. 60: 346–355, 1974.
 276. Holtrop, M. E., and J. M. Weinger. Ultrastructural evidence for a transport system in bone. In: Calcium, Parathyroid Hormone and the Calcitonins, edited by R. V. Talmage and P. L. Munson. Amsterdam: Excerpta Med., 1972, p. 365. (Int. Congr. Serv. 243.).
 277. Horiuchi, N. M., P. Caulfield, J. E. Fisher, et al. Similarity of synthetic peptide from human tumor to parathyroid hormone in vivo and in vitro. Science 238: 1566–1568, 1987.
 278. Horst, R. L., E. T. Littledike, R. W. Gray, and J. L. Napoli. 24,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D production in anephric man and pig. J. Clin. Invest. 67: 274–280, 1981.
 279. Hostetter, T. H., Diabetic nephropathy. In: The Kidney (3rd ed.), edited by B. M. Brenner and F. C. Rector, Jr. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1986, p. 1377–1402.
 280. Hove, K., R. L. Horst, E. T. Littledike, and D. C. Beitz. Infusions of parathyroid hormone in ruminants: hypercalcemia and reduced plasma 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D concentrations. Endocrinology 114: 897–903, 1984.
 281. Hruska, K. A., K. J. Martin, P. Mennes, H. A. Greenwalt, G. Anderson, and S. Klahr. Degradation of parathyroid hormone and fragment production by the isolated perfused dog kidney: the effects of glomerular filtration rate and perfusate Ca++ concentrations. J. Clin. Invest. 60: 501–510, 1977.
 282. Hsueh, A. J., and G. F. Erickson. Glucocorticoid inhibition of FSH‐induced estrogen production in cultured rat granulosa cells. Steroids 32: 639–648, 1978.
 283. Hughes, M. R., D. Baylink, P. G. Jones, and M. R. Haussler. Radiological receptor assay for 25‐hydroxyvitamin D2/D3 and 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D2/D3: application to hypervitaminosis D. J. Clin. Invest. 58: 61–70, 1976.
 284. Hughes, M. R., P. F. Brumbaugh, M. R. Haussler, J. E. Wergedal, and D. J. Baylink. Regulation of serum 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D by calcium and phosphate in the rat. Science 190: 578–579, 1975.
 285. Hughes, M. R., P. J. Malloy, D. G. Kieback, R. A. Kesterson, J. W. Pike, D. Feldman, B. W. O'Malley. Point mutations in the human vitamin D receptor gene associated with hypocalcemic rickets. Science 242: 1702–1705, 1988.
 286. Hugi, K., C. Preston, H. Fleisch, and J. P. Bonjour. Renal handling of calcium in rats: influence of parathyroid hormone and 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3. In: Vitamin D: Biochemical, Chemical, and Clinical Aspects Related to Calcium Metabolism, edited by A. W. Norman, K. Schaefer, J. W. Coburn, F. DeLuca, D. Fraser, H. G. Grigoleit, and D. V. Harrath. New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1977, p. 433.
 287. Hulter, H. N., B. P. Halloran, R. D. Toto, and J. C. Paterson. Long‐term control of plasma calcitriol concentration in dogs and humans: dominant control of plasma calcium concentration in experimental hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Invest. 76: 695–702, 1985.
 288. Humes, H. D., I. Ichikawa, J. L. Troy, and B. M. Brenner. Evidence for a parathyroid hormone–dependent influence of calcium on the glomerular filtration. J. Clin. Invest. 61: 32–40, 1978.
 289. Hunt, J. Growth of the epiphyseal plate in circumferences. Acta Anat. (Basel) 82: 420–431, 1972.
 290. Ikeda, K., E. C. Weir, M. Mangin, P. S. Dannies, B. Kinder, L. S. Deftos, E. M. Brown, and A. E. Broadus. Expression of messenger ribonucleic acids encoding a parathyroid hormone‐like peptide in normal human and animal tissues with abnormal expression in human parathyroid adenomas. Mol. Endocrinol. 2: 1230–1236, 1988.
 291. Imai, M. Effects of parathyroid hormone and N6,O2‐dibutyryl cyclic AMP on Ca++ transport across the rabbit distal nephron segments perfused in vitro. Pflugers Arch. 390: 145–151, 1981.
 292. Ingbar, S., E. H. Kass, C. H. Burnett, A. S. Relman, B. A. Burrows, and J. H. Sisson. The effect of ACTH and cortisone on the renal tubular transport of uric acid, phosphorus, and electrolytes in patients with normal renal and adrenal function. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 38: 533–541, 1951.
 293. Insogna, K. L., A. E. Broadus, and J. M. Gertner. Impaired phosphorus conservation and 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D generation during phosphorus deprivation in familial hypophosphatemic rickets. J. Clin. Invest. 71: 1562–1569, 1983.
 294. Jande, S. S., and L. F. Belanger. Electron microscopy of osteocytes and the pericellular matrix in rat trabecular bone. Calcif. Tissue Res. 6: 280–289, 1971.
 295. Jones, H. H., J. D. Priest, W. C. Hayes, C. C. Tichenor, and D. A. Nagel. Humeral hypertrophy in response to exercise. J. Bone Joint Surg. 59A: 204–208, 1977.
 296. Jonxis, J. H., P. A. Smith, and T. H. J. Huisman. Rickets and amino‐aciduria. Lancet 2: 1015–1017, 1952.
 297. Juhlin, C., L. Klareskog, P. Nygren, S. Ljunghall, E. Gylfe, and G. Akerstrom. Hyperparathyroidism is associated with reduced expression of a parathyroid calcium receptor mechanism defined by monoclonal antiparathyroid antibodies. Endocrinology 122: 2999–3001, 1988.
 298. Kanis, J. A., N. D. Adams, M. Earnshaw, G. Heynon, L. G. G. Ledingham, D. O. Oliver, R. G. G. Russell, and C. C. Woods. Vitamin D, osteomalacia and chronic renal failure. In: Vitamin D: Biochemical, Chemical, and Clinical Aspects Related to Calcium Metabolism, edited by A. W. Norman, K. Schaefer, J. W. Cohen, H. F. DeLuca, D. Fraser, H. G. Grigoleit, and D. von Harrath. Berlin: W. de Gruyter, 1977, p. 671.
 299. Katz, E. P., and S. T. Li. Structure and function of bone collagen fibrils. J. Mol. Biol. 80, 1–15, 1973.
 300. Kawashima, H., J. A. Kraut, and K. Kurokawa. Metabolic acidosis suppresses 25‐hydroxyvitamin D3 1α‐hydroxylase in the rat kidney. Distinct site and mechanism of action. J. Clin. Invest. 70: 135–140, 1982.
 301. Kelepouris, E. Renal handling of calcium. Am. J. Nephrol. 8: 226–234, 1988.
 302. Kelley, V. C., and R. H. A. Ruvalcaba. Use of anabolic agents in treatment of short children. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 1: 25–39, 1982.
 303. Kember, N. F and H. A. Sissons. Quantitative histology of the human growth plate. J. Bone Joint Surg. 58B: 426–435, 1976.
 304. Kempson, S. A., G. Colon‐Otero, S. L. Ou, and T. P. Dousa. Possible role of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) as an intracellular regulator of renal phosphate transport. J. Clin. Invest. 67: 1347–1360, 1981.
 305. Kennedy, B. J. Metabolic and toxic effects of mithramycin during tumor therapy. Am. J. Med. 49: 494–503, 1970.
 306. Kenny, A. D. Vitamin D metabolism: physiologic regulation in egg‐laying Japanese quail. Am. J. Physiol. 230: 1609–1615, 1976.
 307. Kitigawa, T., A. Akatsuka, M. Owada, and T. Mano. Biologic and therapeutic effects of 1 alpha‐hydroxycholecalciferol in different types of fanconi syndrome. Contrib. Nephrol. 22: 107–119, 1980.
 308. Kivirkko, K. I. Urinary excretion of hydroxyproline in health and disease. Int. Rev. Connect. Tissue Res. 5: 93–163, 1970.
 309. Kleeman, C. R., D. Bernstein, R. Rickney, J. T. Dowling, and M. H. Maxwell. Studies on the renal clearance of diffusible calcium and the role of the parathyroid glands in its regulation. Yale J. Biol. Med. 34: 1–30, 1964.
 310. Kleerekoper, M., R. Coffey, T. Greco, S. Nichols, N. Cooke, W. Murphy, and L. V. Avioli. Hypercalcemic hyperparathyroidism in hypophosphatemic rickets. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 45: 86–94, 1977.
 311. Klein, D. C., and L. G. Raisz. Prostaglandins: stimulation of bone resorption in tissue culture. Endocrinology 86: 1436–1440, 1970.
 312. Knochel, J. P., and H. R. Jackson. Renal handling of phosphorus, clinical hypophosphatemia, and phosphorus deficiency. In: The Kidney (3rd ed.), edited by B. M. Brenner and F. C. Rector Jr. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1986, p. 619–662.
 313. Kolb, F. O., and H. L. Steinbach. Pseudohypoparathyroidism with secondary hyperparathyroidism and osteitis fibrosa. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 22: 59–70, 1962.
 314. Koppel, M. J., S. J. Massry, J. H. Shinaberger, D. L. Hartenbower, and J. W. Coburn. Thiazide‐induced rise in serum calcium and magnesium in patients on maintenance hemodialysis. Ann. Intern. Med. 72: 895–901, 1970.
 315. Korkor, A. B. Reduced binding of [3H]1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 in the parathyroid glands of patients with renal failure N. Engl. J. Med. 316: 1573–1577, 1987.
 316. Krane, S. M. Etidronate sodium in the treatment of Paget's disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 96: 619–625, 1982.
 317. Kream, B. E., D. W. Rowe, S. C. Gworek, and L. G. Raisz. Parathyroid hormone alters collagen synthesis and procollagen mRNA levels in fetal rat calvaria. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77: 5654–5658, 1980.
 318. Kremer, R., I. Bolivar, D. Goltzman, and G. N. Hendy. Influence of calcium and 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol on proliferation and protooncogene expression in primary cultures of bovine parathyroid cells. Endocrinology 125: 935–941, 1989.
 319. Kristiansen, J. H., P. Rodbro, C. Christiansen, J. Johansen, and J. T. Jenson. Familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia III: Bone mineral metabolism. Clin. Endocrinol. 26: 713–716, 1987.
 320. Krohn, H. P., G. Offermann, M. Brandis, J. Brodehl, K. Hanke, and G. Offner. Occurrence of hyperparathyroidism in children with X‐linked hypophosphatemia under treatment with vitamin D and phosphate. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 81: 345–351, 1977.
 321. Kumar, R., W. R. Cohen, P. Silva, and F. H. Epstein. Elevated 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D plasma levels in normal human pregnancy and lactation. J. Clin. Invest. 63: 342–344, 1979.
 322. Kurnick, B. R. C., and K. A. Hruska. Effects of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol on phosphate transport in vitamin D–deprived rats. Am. J. Physiol. 247 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 16): F177–F182, 1984.
 323. Lamberg, B. A., and B. Kuhlback. Effects of chlorthiazide and hydrochlothiazide on the excretion of calcium in urine. Scand. J. Clin. Lab. Invest. 11: 351–357, 1959.
 324. Lang, R. P., O. Yanagawa, E. P. Nord, L. Sakhrani, S. H. Lee, and L. G. Fine. Nucleotide inhibition of phosphate transport in the renal proximal tubule. Am. J. Physiol. 245 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 14): F263–271, 1983.
 325. Larkins, R. G., S. J. MacAulay, and I. MacIntyre. Feedback control of vitamin D metabolism by a nuclear action of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol in the kidney. Nature 252: 412–414, 1974.
 326. Laron, Z., J. D. Crawford, and R. Klein. Phosphaturic effects of cortisone in normal and parathyroidectomized rats. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 96: 649–651, 1957.
 327. Larsson, R., G. Akerstrom, E. Gylfe, H. Johansen, S. Ljunghal, J. Rastad, and C. Wallfelt. Paradoxical effects of K+ and D‐600 on parathyroid hormone secretion and cytoplasmic Ca2+ in normal bovine and pathological human parathyroid cells. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 847: 263–269, 1985.
 328. Lavender, A. R., and T. N. Pullman. Changes in organic phosphate excretion induced by renal arterial infusion of calcium. Am. J. Physiol. 205: 1025–1032, 1963.
 329. Law, W. M. Jr., and H. Heath III. Familial benign hypercalcemia (hypocalciuric hypercalcemia): clinical and pathogenetic studies in 21 families. Ann. Intern. Med. 102: 511–519, 1985.
 330. Lawoyin, S., S. Sismilich, R. Browne, and C. Y. C. Pak. Bone mineral content in patients with primary hyperparathyroidism, osteoporosis, and calcium urolithiasis. Metabolism 28: 1250–1254, 1979.
 331. Lawrence, G. D., R. G. Loeffler, L. G. Martin, and T. B. Connor. Immobilization hypercalcemia: some new aspects of diagnosis and treatment. J. Bone Joint Surg. 55A: 87–94, 1979.
 332. LeBoff, M. S., D. Shoback, E. M. Brown, J. Thatcher, R. Leombruno, D. Beaudoin, M. Henry, R. Wilson, J. Pallotta, S. Marynick, J. Stock, and G. Leight. Regulation of parathyroid hormone release and cytosolic calcium by extracellular calcium in dispersed and cultured bovine and pathological human parathyroid cells. J. Clin. Invest. 75: 49–57, 1985.
 333. Lee, S. W., J. Russell, and L. V. Avioli. 25‐Hydroxycholecalciferol to 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol: conversion impaired by systemic acidosis. Science 185: 994–996, 1977.
 334. Lemann, J., J. R. Litzgow, and E. J. Lennon. The effects of chronic acid loads in normal man: further evidence for the participation of bone mineral in the defense against chronic metabolic acidosis. J. Clin. Invest. 45: 1608–1614, 1966.
 335. Lemann, J. Jr., J. R. Litzgow, and E. J. Lennon. Studies of the mechanisms by which chronic metabolic acidosis augments urinary calcium excretion in man. J. Clin. Invest. 46: 1318–1328, 1967.
 336. Levi, M., L. Peterson, and T. Berl. Mechanism of concentrating defect in hypercalcemia: role of polydipsia and prostaglandins. Kidney Int. 23: 489–497, 1982.
 337. Levin, M. E., V. C. Boinseau, and L. V. Avioli. Effect of diabetes mellitus on bone mass in juvenile and adult‐onset diabetes. N. Engl. J. Med. 294: 241–245, 1976.
 338. Levine, M. A., T. G. Ahn, S. F. Klupt, K. D. Kaufman, P. M. Smallwood, H. R. Bourne, K. Sullivan, and C. Van Dopp. Genetic deficiency of the alpha subunit of the guanine nucleotide‐binding protein, Gs as the molecular basis for Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 617–621, 1988.
 339. Levine, M. A., R. W. Downs, Jr., A. M. Moses, N. A. Breslau, S. J. Marx, R. D. Laskar, R. E. Rizzoli, G. D. Aurbach, and A. M. Spiegel. Resistance to multiple hormones in patients with deficient activity of guanine nucleotide regulatory protein. Am. J. Med. 74: 545–556, 1983.
 340. Levine, M. A., R. W. Downs, Jr., M. Singer, S. J. Marx, G. D. Aurbach, and A. M. Spiegel. Deficient activity of guanine nucleotide regulatory protein in erythrocytes from patients with pseudohypoparathyroidism. Biochem. Biopbys. Res. Commun. 94: 1319–1324, 1980.
 341. Lightwood, R. Calcium infarction of kidney in infants. Arch. Dis. Child. 10: 205–206, 1935.
 342. Llnde, A., M. Jontell, J. Lundgren, B. Nilson, and V. Svanberg. Non‐collagenous proteins in rat bone. J. Biol. Chem. 258: 1698–1705, 1983.
 343. Lins, L. E. Reversible renal failure caused by hypercalcemia: a retrospective study. Acta Med. Scand. 203: 309–314, 1978.
 344. Liu, C. C., D. J. Baylink, and J. Wergedal. Vitamin D–enhanced osteoclastic bone resorption at vascular channels. Endocrinology 95: 1011–1018, 1973.
 345. Lobaugh, B., and M. K. Drezner. Abnormal regulation of renal 25‐hydroxy‐vitamin D–1‐hydroxylase activity in the X‐linked hypophosphatemic mouse. J. Clin, Invest. 71: 400–403, 1983.
 346. Lomnitz, E., L. Sepulveda, C. Stevenson, and J. Razolatto. Primary hyperparathyroidism simulating rickets. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 26: 309–313, 1966.
 347. Lopez‐Hilker, S., T. Galceran, Y. L. Chan, N. Rapp, K. J. Martin, and E. Slatopolsky. Hypocalcemia may not be essential for the development of secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic renal failure. J. Clin. Invest. 78: 1097–1102, 1986.
 348. Lucas, R. C. On the form of late rickets associated with albuminuria, rickets of adolescence. Lancet 1: 993–994, 1883.
 349. Lukert, B. P., and L. G. Raisz. Glucocorticoid‐induced osteopenia: pathogenesis and management. Ann. Intern. Med. 112: 352–364, 1990.
 350. Lyles, K. W., A. G. Clark, and M. K. Drezner. Serum 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D levels in subjects with X‐linked hyphophosphatemic rickets and osteomalacia. Calcif. Tissue Int. 34: 125–130, 1982.
 351. Lyles, K. W., and M. K. Drezner. Parathyroid hormone effects on serum 1,25 dihydroxy‐vitamin D levels in patients with X‐linked hypophosphatemic rickets: evidence for abnormal 25‐hydroxyvitamin D–1‐hydroxylase activity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 54: 638–644, 1982.
 352. Lyles, K. W., D. L. Halsey, N. E. Friedman, and G. Lobaugh. Association of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D, phosphorus, and parathyroid hormone is tumoral calcinosis: potential pathogenetic mechanisms for the disease. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 68: 88–92, 1988.
 353. Lyles, K. W., C. R. McNamara, and M. K. Drezner. Coincidence of hypoparathyroidism and X‐linked hypophosphatemic rickets: an experiment in nature illuminating the physiological factors which regulate the renal tubular defect, abstracted. Calcif. Tissue Int. 33: 309, 1981.
 354. Lyon, M. F., C. R. Scriver, L. R. I. Baker, H. S. Tenen‐house, J. Kronick, and S. Mandla. The Gy mutation: another cause of X‐linked hypophosphatemia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83: 4899–4903, 1986.
 355. MacAdams, M. R., R. H. White, and B. E. Chipps. Reduction of serum testosterone levels during chronic glucocorticoid therapy. Ann. Intern. Med. 104: 648–651, 1986.
 356. MacDonald, B. R., G. R. Mundy, S. Clark, E. A. Wang, T. J. Kuehl, E. R. Stanley, and G. D. Roodman. Effects of human recombinant CSF‐GM and highly purified CSF‐1 on the formation of multinucleated cells with osteoclast characteristics in long‐term bone marrow cultures. J. Bone Miner. Res. 1: 227–233, 1986.
 357. MacIntyre, I., S. Boss, and V. A. Troughton. Parathyroid hormone and magnesium homeostasis. Nature 198: 1058–1060, 1963.
 358. MacIntyre, I., L. S. Galante, I. M. A. Evans, K. W. Carlston, D. N. Moss, E. W. Matthews, P. G. H. Byfield, S. J. MacAuley, R. G. Larkins, C. J. Hillyard, and P. B. Greenberg. The regulation of vitamin D metabolism. In: Endocrinology 1973, edited by S. Taylor. London: Heinemann, 1974, p. 26.
 359. MacLaughlin, J., and M. F. Holick. Aging decreases the capacity of human skin to produce vitamin D3. J. Clin. Invest. 76: 1536–1538, 1985.
 360. Malluche, H. H., A. J. Smith, K. Abrea, and M. C. Faugere. The use of desferrioxamine in the management of renal patients with bone aluminum accumulation. N. Engl. J. Med. 311: 140–144, 1984.
 361. Maloney, N. A., S. A. Ott, A. C. Alfrey, J. W. Coburn, and D. J. Sherrard. Histologic quantitation of aluminum in iliac bone from patients with renal failure. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 99: 206–216, 1982.
 362. Mangelsdorf, D., D. McDonnell, A. Balas, J. Shine, K. Yamaoka, J. Piko, B. O'Malley, and M. Haussler. Characterization of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptor mRNA by Northern analysis with avian and human cDNA probes. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2 (Suppl.): 201A, 1987.
 363. Mangin, M., A. C. Webb, B. E. Dreyer, J. T. Posillico, K. Ikeda, A. F. Stewart, N. H. Bander, and A. E. Broadus. Identification of a cDNA encoding a parathyroid hormone‐like peptide from a human tumor associated with humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 597–601, 1988.
 364. Marcus, R., and G. D. Aurbach. Adenyl cyclase form renal cortex. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 242: 410–421, 1971.
 365. Marone, C. C. Effects of acute metabolic acid‐base changes and furosemide on magnesium excretion in the rat. Metabolism 32: 983–1033, 1983.
 366. Marone, C., C. Beretta‐Piccoli, and P. Wiedmann. Acute hypercalcemic hypertension in man: role of hemodynamics, catecholamines and renin. Kidney Int. 20: 92–96, 1981.
 367. Martin, K. J., J. J. Freitag, M. Conrades, K. H. Hruska, S. Klahr, and E. Slatopolsky. Selective uptake of the synthetic amino‐terminal fragment of bovine parathyroid hormone by isolated perfused bone. J. Clin. Invest. 62: 256–261, 1978.
 368. Martin, K. J., K. A. Hruska, J. Lewis, C. Anderson, and E. Slatopolsky. The renal handling of parathyroid hormone: role of peritubular uptake and glomerular filtration. J. Clin. Invest. 60: 808–814, 1977.
 369. Martin, T. J., and L. J. Suva. Parathyroid hormone–related protein in hypercalcemia of malignancy. Clin. Endocrinol. 31: 631–647, 1989.
 370. Marx, S. J., M. F. Attie, M. A. Levine, A. M. Spiegel, R. W. Downs, Jr., and R. D. Lasker. The hypocalciuric or benign variant of familial hypercalcemia: clinical and biochemical features in fifteen kindreds. Medicine (Baltimore) 60: 397–412 1981.
 371. Marx, S. J., M. F. Attie, A. M. Spiegel, M. A. Levine, R. D. Lasker, and M. Fox. An association between neonatal severe primary hyperparathyroidism and hypocalciuric hypercalcemia in three kindreds. N. Engl. J. Med. 306: 257–264, 1982.
 372. Marx, S. J., R. D. Lasker, E. M. Brown, L. A. Fitzpatrick, N. B. Sweezey, R. B. Goldbloom, D. A. Gillis, and D. E. C. Cole. Secretory dysfunction in parathyroid cells from a neonate with severe primary hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62: 445–449, 1986.
 373. Marx, S. J., U. A. Liberman, C. Eil, G. Gamblin, D. A. DeGrange, and S. Balsan. A familial syndrome of decrease in sensitivity to 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D. Recent Prog. Hortn. Res. 40: 589–615, 1984.
 374. Marx, S. J., M. E. Sharp, A. Krudy, M. Rosenblatt, and L. E. Mallette. Radioimmunoassay for the middle region of human parathyroid hormone: studies with a radioiodinated synthetic peptide. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 53: 76–84, 1981.
 375. Marx, S. J., A. M. Spiegel, E. M. Brown, D. G. Gardner, R. W. Downs, Jr., M. Attie, A. J. Hamstra, and H. F. DeLuca. A familial syndrome of decrease in sensitivity to 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 47: 1303–1310, 1978.
 376. Marx, S. J., A. M. Spiegel, E. M. Brown, J. O. Koehler, D. G. Gardner, M. F. Brennan, and G. D. Aurbach. Divalent cation metabolism: familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia versus typical primary hyperparathyroidism. Am. J. Med. 65: 235–242, 1978.
 377. Marx, S. J., A. M. Spiegel, E. M. Brown, R. Windeck, D. G. Gardner, R. W. Downs, Jr., M. Attie, and G. D. Aurbach. Circulating parathyroid hormone activity: familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia versus typical primary hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 47: 1190–1197, 1978.
 378. Marx, S. J., A. M. Spiegel, M. E. Sharp, E. M. Brown, D. G. Gardner, R. W. Downs, Jr., M. F. Attie, and J. L. Stock. Adenosine 3'5'‐monophosphate response to parathyroid hormone: familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia vs typical primary hyperparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 50: 540–548, 1980.
 379. Mason, R. S., D. Lissner, H. S. Grunsteim, and S. Posen. A simplified assay for dihydroxylated vitamin D metabolites in human serum: application to hyper‐ and hypovitaminosis D. Clin. Chem. 26: 444–450, 1980.
 380. Mason, R. S., D. Lissner, M. Wilkinson, and S. Posen. Vitamin D metabolites and their relationship to azotemic osteodystrophy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. 13: 375–385, 1980.
 381. Massry, S. G., J. W. Coburn, and C. R. Kleeman. Renal transport of magnesium in the dog. Am. J. Physiol. 216: 1460–1467, 1969.
 382. Massry, S. G., R. Stein, J. Garty, A. I. Arieff, J. W. Coburn, A. W. Norman, and R. M. Friedler. Skeletal resistance to the calcemic action of parathyroid hormone in uremia: role of 1,25(OH)2D. Kidney Int. 9: 457–474, 1976.
 383. Matsuoka, L. Y., L. Ide, J. Wortsman, J. A. McLaughlin, and M. F. Holick. Sunscreens suppress cutaneous vitamin D3 synthesis. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 64: 1165–1168, 1987.
 384. Mawer, C. B., G. A. Lumb, K. Schaefer, and S. W. Stanbury. The metabolism of isotopically labeled vitamin D3 in man: the influence of the state of vitamin D nutrition. Clin. Sci. 40: 39–53, 1971.
 385. Mayer, G. P., J. F. Habener, and J. T. Potts, Jr. Parathyroid hormone secretion in vivo: demonstration of a calcium‐independent, non‐suppressible component of secretion. J. Clin. Invest. 57: 678–683, 1979.
 386. Mayer, G. P., and J. G. Hurst. Sigmoidal relationship between secretion rate and plasma calcium concentration in calves. Endocrinology 102: 1036–1042, 1978.
 387. McKibbin, B., The structure of the epiphysis. In: Scientific Foundations of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, edited by R. Owen, J. Goodfellow, and P. G. Bullough. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1980, p. 169–175.
 388. McSherry, E., and R. C. Morris, Jr. Attainment and maintenance of normal stature with alkali therapy in infants and children with classical renal acidosis. J. Clin. Invest. 61: 509–529, 1978.
 389. Meema, H. E., P. G. Orcaoulos, J. Rabinovich, H. Husdan, and A. Rapaport. Periosteal new bone formation (periosteal neostosis) in renal osteodystrophy. Radiology 110: 513–522, 1973.
 390. Mehls, O., E. Ritz, K. Burkhard, G. Gilli, W. Link, E. Willich, and K. Scharer. Slipped epiphysis in renal osteodystrophy. Arch. Dis. Child. 50: 545–554, 1975.
 391. Merendino, J. J., K. L. Insogna, L. M. Milstone, A. E. Broadus, and A. F. Stewart. A parathyroid hormone‐like protein from cultured human keratinocytes. Science 231: 388–390, 1986.
 392. Meyer, R. A. R. W. Gray, and M. H. Meyer. Abnormal vitamin D metabolism in the X‐linked hypophosphatemic mouse. Endocrinology 107: 1577–1581, 1980.
 393. Meyer, R. A., Jr., M. H. Meyer, and R. W. Gray. Parabiosis suggests a humoral factor is involved in X‐linked hypophosphatemia in mice. J. Bone Miner. Res. 4: 493–500, 1989.
 394. Meyer, R. A., M. H. Meyer, R. W. Gray, and M. E. Bruns. Evidence that low plasma 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D causes intestinal malabsorption of calcium and phosphate in juvenile X‐linked mice. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2: 67–82, 1987.
 395. Minkin, C. L., L. Blackman, J. Newbrey, S. Pokress, R. Posek, and M. Walling. Effects of parathyroid hormone and calcitonin on adenylate cyclase in murine mononuclear phagocytes. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 76: 875–881, 1977.
 396. Miller, P. D., J. L. Dubovsky, R. W. Schrier, K. M. McDonald, and C. Arnaud. Hypocalciuric effect of lithium in man. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 81: 157–172, 1976.
 397. Miller, S. C., B. M. Bowman, J. M. Smith, and W. S. S. Jee. Characterization of endosteal bone‐lining cells from fatty marrow bone in adult beagles. Anat. Res. 198: 163–173, 1980.
 398. Mitchell, J., A. Hendy, A. Tenenhouse, and D. Goltzman. Characterization of a post receptor defect in the adenylate cyclase system during vitamin D deficiency. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2 (Suppl.): 395A, 1987.
 399. Monolagas, S. C., D. M. Provedini, and C. Tsoukas. Interactions of 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3 and the immune system. Mol. Cell Endocrinol. 43: 113–122, 1985.
 400. Morrissey, J. J., J. W. Hamilton, R. R. MacGregor, and D. V. Cohn. The secretion of parathormone fragments 34–84 and 37–84 by dispersed porcine parathyroid cells. Endocrinology 107: 164–171, 1980.
 401. Morrissey, J., M. Rothstein, G. Mayor, and E. Slatopolsky. Suppression of parathyroid hormone secretion by aluminum. Kidney Int. 23: 699–704, 1983.
 402. Morrissey, R. L., and R. H. Wasserman. Calcium absorption and calcium‐binding protein in chicks on differing calcium and phosphorus diets. Am. J. Physiol. 220: 1509–1515, 1971.
 403. Moseley, J. M., M. Kubota, H. Diefenbach‐Jagger, R. E. H. Weltenhall, B. E. Kemp, L. J. Juva, C. P. Rodda, P. R. Ebeling, P. J. Hudson, J. D. Zajac, and T. J. Martin. Parathyroid hormone–related protein purified from a human lung cancer cell line. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84: 5048–5052, 1987.
 404. Moses, A. M., N. Breslau, and R. Coulson. Renal responses to PTH in patients with hormone‐resistant (pseudo) hypoparathyroidism. Am. J. Med. 61: 184–189, 1976.
 405. Motokura, T., J. Fukumoto, T. Matsumoto, et al. Parathyroid hormone‐related protein in adult T‐cell leukemia‐lymphoma. Ann. Intern. Med. 111: 484–488, 1989.
 406. Mundy, G. R., J. L. Shapiro, J. G. Bandelin, E. M. Canalis, and L. G. Raisz. Direct stimulation of bone resorption by thyroid hormones. J. Clin. Invest. 58: 529–534, 1976.
 407. Narayanan, A. S., R. C. Siegel, and G. R. Martin. On the inhibition of lysyloxidase by B‐aminopropionitrile. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 46: 745–751, 1976.
 408. Nemeth, E. F. Regulation of cytosolic calcium by extracellular divalent cations in C‐cells and parathyroid cells. Cell Calcium 11: 323–328, 1990.
 409. Nesbitt, T., G. A. Davidai, P. C. Brazy, and M. K. Drezner. Clinical disorders of phosphorus and vitamin D metabolism. In: Clinical Disorders of Bone and Mineral Metabolism. Kleerekoper, M., and S. M. Krane, eds. New York: Mary Ann Liebert, 1989, p. 469‐474.
 410. Nesbitt, T., G. A. Davidai, and M. K. Drezner. Abnormal adenosine 3',5'‐monophosphate stimulation of renal 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D production in hyp mice: evidence that 25‐hydroxyvitamin D–1α‐hydroxylase dysfunction results from aberrant intracellular function. Endocrinology 124: 1184–1189, 1989.
 411. Nesbitt, T., B. Lobaugh, and M. K. Drezner. Calcitonin stimulation of renal 25‐hydroxyvitamin D–1α‐hydroxylase activity in the hypophosphatemic mouse: evidence that the regulation of calcitriol production is not universally abnormal in X‐linked hypophosphatemia. J. Clin. Invest. 79: 15–19, 1987.
 412. Nijweide, P. J., E. H. Burger, and J. H. M. Feyen. Cells of bone: proliferation, differentiation, and hormonal regulation. Physiol. Rev. 66: 855–886, 1986.
 413. Nissenson, R. A., S. R. Abbott, A. P. Teitelbaum, O. H. Clark, and C. D. Arnaud. Endogenous biologically active human parathyroid hormone: measurement by a guanine nucleotide–amplified renal adenylate cyclase assay. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 52: 840–846, 1981.
 414. Nissenson, R. A., S. Leung, D. Diep, R. D. Williams, and G. J. Strewler. Purification of a low molecular weight form of the tumor‐derived parathyroid‐hormone‐like protein. J. Bone Miner. Res. 2 (Suppl. 1): 388, 1987 (Abstract).
 415. Norman, A. W., J. Roth, and L. Orci. The vitamin D endocrine system: steroid metabolism, hormone receptors, and biological response (calcium binding proteins). Endocr. Rev. 3: 331–366, 1982.
 416. Nussbaum, S., R. Gaz, and A. Arnold. Ectopic secretion of parathyroid hormone from an ovarian cancer with DNA rearrangement of the 5' regulatory region of the PTH gene. Clin. Res. 38: 462A, 1990.
 417. Nussbaum, S. R., J. T. Potts, Jr., C. A. Wang, R. Zahradnik, J. R. Lavigne, L. Kim, and G. V. Segre. A highly sensitive two‐site immunoradiometric assay for parathyroid hormone (PTH) and its clinical utility in the evaluation of patients with hypercalcemia. Clin. Chem. 33: 1364–1367, 1987.
 418. Ogden, J. A., The development and growth of the musculo‐skeletal system. In: The Scientific Basis of Orthopedics, edited by J. A. Albright and R. A. Brand. New York: Appleton‐Century‐Crofts, 1979, p. 41–43.
 419. Oldberg, A., A. Franzen, and D. Heinegard. Cloning and sequence analysis of rat bone sialoprotein (osteopontin) cDNA reveals an Arg‐Gly‐Asp cell‐binding sequence. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83: 8819–8823, 1986.
 420. Oldham, S. B., R. Smith, D. L. Hartenbower, and H. L. Henry. Effects of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol on serum calcium, phosphate, and immunoreactive parathyroid hormone in dogs. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 103: 509–518, 1977.
 421. O'Rahilly, R., and E. Gardner. The initial appearance of ossification in staged human embryos. Am. J. Anat. 134: 291–301, 1972.
 422. Owen, M., C. R. Hewlett, and J. T. Triffitt. Movement of 125I albumin and 125I‐polyvinylpyrrolidone through bone tissue fluid. Calcif. Tissue Res. 23: 103–112, 1977.
 423. Pak, C. Y. C., Pathogenesis of hypercalciuria. In: Bone and Mineral Research, edited by W. A. Peck. New York: Elsevier, 1985, vol. 4, 303–334.
 424. Pak, C. Y. C., Kidney stones. In: Williams Textbook of Endocrinology (7th ed.), edited by J. D. Wilson and D. W. Foster. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1985, p. 1256–1273.
 425. Pak, C. Y. C, R. Kaplan, and C. Notz. Photon absorptio‐metric analysis of bone density in primary hyperparathyroidism. Lancet 2: 7–8, 1975.
 426. Pak, C. Y. C., B. Ruskin, and A. Casper. Renal effects of porcine calcitonin in the dog. Endocrinology 87: 262–270, 1970.
 427. Pan, L. C., and P. A. Price. The propeptide of rat bone gamma‐carboxyglutamic acid protein shares homology with other vitamin K–dependent protein precursors. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82: 6109–6113, 1985.
 428. Papapoulos, S. E., T. L. Clemens, L. J. Fraher, I. G. Lewin, L. M. Sandler, and J. L. H. O'Riordan. 1,25‐Dihydroxy‐cholecalciferol in the pathogenesis of the hypercalcemia of sarcoidosis. Lancet 1: 627–630, 1979.
 429. Parfitt, A. M. Hypophosphatemic vitamin D refractory rickets and osteomalacia. Orthop. Clin. North Am. 3: 653–680, 1972.
 430. Parfitt, A. M. The actions of parathyroid hormone on bone: relation to bone remodeling and turnover, calcium homeostasis, and metabolic bone disease. Part II of IV parts: PTH and bone cells: bone turnover and plasma calcium regulation. Metabolism 25: 909–955, 1976.
 431. Parfitt, A. M. Hypercalcemic hyperparathyroidism following renal transplantation: differential diagnosis, management, and implications for cell population control in the parathyroid gland. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 8: 92–112, 1982.
 432. Parfitt, A. M., and M. Kleerekoper. The divalent ion homeostatic system—physiology and metabolism of calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and bone. In: Clinical Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism (3rd ed.), edited by M. H. Maxwell and C. R. Kleeman. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1980, p. 269–398.
 433. Parfitt, A. M., and M. Kleerekoper. Clinical disorders of calcium, phosphorus and magnesium metabolism. In: Clinical Disorders of Fluid and Electrolyte Metabolism (3rd ed.), edited by M. H. Maxwell and C. R. Kleeman. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1980, p. 947–1151.
 434. Parkinson, I. S., T. G. Afeest, M. K. Ward, R. N. P. Fawcett, and D. N. S. Kerr. Fracturing dialysis osteodystrophy and dialysis encephalopathy: an epidemiological survey. Lancet 1: 406–409, 1979.
 435. Patten, B. M., J. P. Bilezikian, L. Mallette, A. Prince, W. K. Engel, and G. D. Aurbach. Neuromuscular disease in hyperparathyroidism. Ann. Intern. Med. 80: 182–193, 1974.
 436. Patten, J. L., D. R. Johns, D. Valle, C. Eil, P. A. Gruppuso, G. Steele, P. M. Smallwood, and M. A. Levine. Mutation in the gene encoding the stimulatory G‐protein of adenylcyclase in Albright's hereditary osteodystrophy. N. Engl. J. Med. 322: 1412–1419, 1990.
 437. Peacock, M., W. G. Robertson, and B. E. C. Nordin. Relation between serum and urinary calcium with particular reference to parathyroid activity. Lancet 1: 384–386, 1969.
 438. Peck, W. A., J. K. Burks, J. Wilkins, S. B. Rodan, and C. A. Rodan. Evidence for preferential effects of parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, and adenosine on bone and periosteum. Endocrinology 100: 1357–1364, 1977.
 439. Pellegrino, E. D., and R. M. Blitz. The composition of human bone in uremia. Medicine (Baltimore) 44: 307–314, 1965.
 440. Perlia, C. P., N. J. Gubisch, J. Wolter, D. Edelberg, M. M. Dederick, and S. G. Taylor III. Mithramycin treatment of hypercalcemia. Cancer 25: 389–394, 1970.
 441. Pfeilschifter, J., and G. R. Mundy. Modulation of transforming growth factor activity in bone cultures by osteotropic hormones. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84: 2024–2028, 1987.
 442. Pierschbacher, M. D., and A. Ruoslahti. Cell attachment activity of fibronectin can be duplicated by small synthetic fragments of the molecule. Nature 309: 30–33, 1984.
 443. Piez, K. A., G. Balian, E. M. Click, and P. Bornstein. Human collagens: differences in glycosylated hydroxylysines in skin and bone. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 229: 119–122, 1971.
 444. Pike, J. W., S. Dokoh, M. R. Haussler, U. A. Liberman, and S. J. Marx. Vitamin D3–resistant fibroblasts have immunoassayable 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3 receptors. Science 224: 879–881, 1984.
 445. Pitts, T. O., B. H. Piraino, R. Mitro, T. C. Chen, G. V. Segre, A. Greenberg, J. B. Puschett. Hyperparathyroidism and 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D deficiency in mild, moderate, and severe renal failure. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 67: 876–881, 1988.
 446. Pliam, N. B., K. O. Nyiredy, and C. D. Arnaud. Parathyroid hormone receptors in avian bone cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79: 2061–2063, 1982.
 447. Pollack, J. A., A. L. Schiller, and J. D. Crawford. Rickets and myopathy cured by removal of a nonossifying fibroma of bone. Pediatrics 52: 364–391, 1973.
 448. Popotzver, M. M., L. J. Schainuck, S. G. Massry, and C. R. Kleeman. Divalent excretion in chronic kidney disease: relation to degree of renal insufficiency. Clin. Sci. 38: 297–307, 1970.
 449. Portale, A. A., B. P. Halloran, S. T. Harris, and R. C. Morris, Jr. Metabolic acidosis reverses the increase in serum concentration of 1,25(OH)2D in phosphorus restricted normal men. Clin. Res. 35: 514A, 1987.
 450. Posen, S., P. Clifton‐Bligh, T. S. Reeve, C. Wagstaffe, and M. Wilkinson. Is parathyroidectomy of benefit in primary hyperparathyroidism? Q. J. Med. 54: 241–251, 1985.
 451. Posner, A. S., Bone mineral. In: Scientific Foundations of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, edited by R. Owen, J. Goodfellow, and P. Bullough. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1980, p. 42–49.
 452. Price, P. A., and S. A. Baukol. 1,25 Dihydroxyvitamin D3 increases serum levels of the vitamin K–dependent bone protein. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 99: 928–935, 1981.
 453. Prince, M. J., P. C. Schaeffer, and R. S. Goldsmith. Hyperphosphatemic tumoral calcinosis: association with elevation of serum 1,25–dihydroxycholecalciferol concentrations. Ann. Intern. Med. 96: 586–591, 1982.
 454. Pullman, T. N., A. R. Lavender, I. Aho, and H. Rasmussen. Direct renal action of a purified parathyroid extract. Endocrinology 67: 570–582, 1960.
 455. Puschett, J. B., P. C. Fernandez, I. T. Boyle, R. W. Gray, J. L. Omdahl, and H. F. Deluca. The acute renal tubular effects of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol (36781). Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 141: 379–384, 1972.
 456. Puschett, J. B., J. Moranz, and W. J. Kurnick. Evidence for a direct action of cholecalciferol and 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol on the renal transport of phosphate, sodium and calcium. J. Clin. Invest. 51: 373–385, 1972.
 457. Puschett, J. B., P. Zurbach, and D. Sylk. Acute effects of parathyroid hormone on proximal bicarbonate transport in the dog. Kidney Int. 9: 501–510, 1976.
 458. Quamme, G. A. Effect of calcitonin on calcium and magnesium transport in rat nephron. Am. J. Physiol. 238 (Endocrinol. Metab. 1): E573–E578, 1980.
 459. Quamme, G. A. Control of magnesium transport in the thick ascending limb. Am. J. Physiol. 256 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 25): F197–F210, 1989.
 460. Quamme, G. A., and J. H. Dirks. Intraluminal and contraluminal magnesium on magnesium and calcium transfer in the rat nephron. Am. J. Physiol. 238 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 7): F187–F198, 1979.
 461. Quamme, G. A., T. O'Callaghan, N. L. M. Wong, R. A. L. Sutton, and J. H. Dirks. Hypercalciuria in the phosphate‐depleted dog: a micropuncture study. Kidney Int. 10: 492A, 1976.
 462. Radeke, M. H., B. Auf'mkolk, H. Juppner, H. P. Krohn, E. Keck, and R. D. Hesch. Multiple pre‐ and postreceptor defects in pseudohypoparathyroidism (a multi‐center study with twenty‐four patients). J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62: 393–402, 1986.
 463. Raisz, L. G. Bone resorption in tissue culture: factors influencing the response to parathyroid hormone. J. Clin. Invest. 44: 103–116, 1965.
 464. Raisz, L. G., and B. E. Kream. Regulation of bone formation. N. Engl. J. Med. 309: 35–89, 1983.
 465. Raisz, L. G., R. A. Luben, G. R. Mundy, J. W. Dietrich, J. E. Horton, and C. L. Trummel. Effect of osteoclast activating factor from human leukocytes on bone metabolism. J. Clin. Invest. 56: 408–413, 1975.
 466. Raisz, L. G., and I. Niemann. Effect of phosphate, calcium, and magnesium on bone resorption and hormonal responses in tissue culture. Endocrinology 85: 446–452, 1969.
 467. Raisz, L. G., C. L. Trummel, M. F. Holick, and H. F. DeLuca. 1,25‐Dihydroxycholecalciferol: a potent stimulator of bone resorption in tissue culture. Science 175: 768–769, 1972.
 468. Rasmussen, H., and C. Anast. Familiar hypophosphatemic rickets and vitamin D–dependent rickets. In: The Metabolic Basis of Inherited Disease (5th ed.), edited by S. Stanbury, J. Wyngaarden, and D. Fredrickson. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1983, p. 1743–1773.
 469. Rasmussen, H., and P. Bordier. The Physiological and Cellular Basis of Metabolic Bone Disease. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins, 1973.
 470. Rasmussen, H., O. Fontaine, E. E. Max, and D. P. D. Goodman. The effect of 1‐hydroxyvitamin D3 administration on calcium transport in chick brush border membrane vesicles. J. Biol. Chem. 254: 2993–2999, 1979.
 471. Ray, W. A., W. Downey, M. R. Griffin, and L. J. Melton. Long‐term use of thiazide diuretics and risk of hip fracture. Lancet: 689–690, 1989.
 472. Reitz, R. E., and R. I. Weinstein. Parathyroid hormone secretion in familial vitamin D–resistant rickets. N. Engl. J. Med. 289: 941–945, 1973.
 473. Richards, P., M. J. Chamberlain, and O. M. Wrong. Treatment of osteomalacia of renal tubular acidosis by sodium bicarbonate alone. Lancet 2: 994–997, 1972.
 474. Riggs, B. L., and L. J. Melton III. Involutional osteoporosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 314: 1676–1686, 1986.
 475. Ritz, E., W. Kreussen, and J. Bommer. Effects of hormones other than parathyroid hormone on renal handling of phosphate. In: Renal Handling of Phosphate, edited by S. G. Massry and H. Fleisch. New York: Plenum, 1980, p. 137.
 476. Rodan, G. A., and T. J. Martin. Role of osteoblasts in hormonal control of bone resorption: a hypothesis. Calcif. Tissue Int. 33: 349–351, 1981.
 477. Rodda, C. P., M. Kubuta, J. A. Heath, P. R. Ebeling, J. M. Moseley, et al. Evidence for a novel parathyroid hormone–related protein in fetal lamb parathyroid glands and sheep placenta: comparisons with a similar protein implicated in humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy. J. Endocrinol. 117: 261–271, 1988.
 478. Rodriguez‐Soriano, J., and C. M. Edelman, Jr. Renal tubular acidosis. Annu. Rev. Med. 20: 363–382, 1969.
 479. Roodman, G. D., K. J. Ibbotson, B. R. MacDonald, T. J. Huehl, and G. R. Mundy. 1,25‐Dihydroxyvitamin D3 causes formation of multinucleated cells with several osteoclast characteristics in cultures of primate marrow. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82: 8213–8217, 1985.
 480. Rosen, J. F., A. R. Fleischman, H. Finbergh, A. Hamstra, and H. F. DeLuca. Rickets with alopecia: an inborn error of vitamin D metabolism. J. Pediatr. 94: 729–735, 1979.
 481. Rowe, D. W., and B. E. Kream. Regulation of collagen synthesis in fetal rat calcium by 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3. J. Biol. Chem. 257: 8009–8015, 1982.
 482. Roy, D. R., K. L. Blouch, and R. L. Jamison. Effect of actue acid–base disturbances on renal tubular reabsorption of magnesium in the rat. Am. J. Physiol. 243 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 12): F197–F203, 1982.
 483. Ruoslahti, E. and M. D. Pierschbacher. New perspectives in cell adhesion: RGD and integrins. Science 238: 491–497, 1987.
 484. Russell, J., D. Lettieri, and L. M. Sherwood. Direct regulation by calcium of cytoplasmic messenger ribonucleic acid coding for pre‐proparathyroid hormone in isolated bovine parathyroid cells. J. Clin. Invest. 72: 1851–1855, 1983.
 485. Russell, J., and L. M. Sherwood. The effects of 1,25(OH)2D3 and high calcium on transcription of the pre‐parathyroid hormone gene are direct. Clin. Res. 35: 659A, 1987.
 486. Russell, J. E., J. D. Termine, and L. V. Avioli. Abnormal bone mineral maturation in the chronic uremic state. J. Clin. Invest. 52: 2848–2852, 1973.
 487. Russell, R. G. G., and H. Fleisch. Pyrophosphate and diphosphonates in skeletal metabolism. Clin. Orthop. 108: 241–263, 1975.
 488. Russell, R. G., R. Smith, C. Preston, R. J. Walton, C. G. Woods, R. C. Henderson, and A. W. Hammon. The effects of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol on renal tubular reabsorption of phosphate, intestinal absorption of calcium and bone histology in hypophosphatemic renal tubular rickets. Clin. Sci. Mol. Med. 48: 177–186, 1975.
 489. Ryan, E. A., and E. Reiss. Oncogenous osteomalacia: review of the world literature of 42 cases and reports of two new cases. Am. J. Med. 77: 501–512, 1984.
 490. Saenger, P., E. Weidmann, E. Schwartz, S. Korthz‐Schutz, J. E. Lewy, R. R. Riggio, A. L. Rubin, K. H. Stenzl, and M. I. New. Somatomedin and growth after renal transplantation. Pediatr. Res. 8: 163–169, 1974.
 491. Sakakura, M., K. Takebe, and S. Nakagawa. Inhibition of luteinizing hormone secretion induced by synthetic LRH by long‐term treatment with glucocorticoids in human subjects. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 40: 774–779, 1975.
 492. Sangal, K., and D. G. Beevers. Parathyroid hypertension. Br. Med. J. 286: 498–499, 1983.
 493. Schneider, L. E., H. P. Schedl, T. McCain, and M. R. Haussler. Experimental diabetes reduces circulating 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D in the rat. Science 196: 1452–1454, 1977.
 494. Scholz, D. A., and D. C. Purnell. Asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism: 10‐year prospective study. Mayo Clin. Proc. 56: 473–478, 1981.
 495. Scriver, C. R., S. W. Kooh, and D. Fraser. Aminoaciduria in vitamin D deficiency and disturbances of parathyroid function. Pediatrics 65: 1085–1086, 1964.
 496. Scriver, C. R., T. M. Reade, H. F. DeLuca, and A. J. Hamstra. Serum 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D levels in normal subjects and in patients with hereditary rickets or bone disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 299: 976–980, 1978.
 497. Seedat, Y. K. Renal tubular acidosis. S. Afr. Med. J. 41: 1007–1012, 1967.
 498. Seeman, E., R. Kumar, G. G. Hunder, M. Scott, H. Heath III, and B. L. Riggs. Production, degradation and circulating levels of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D in health and in chronic glucocorticoid exces J. Clin. Invest. 66: 664–669, 1980.
 499. Seeman, E., H. W. Wahner, K. P. Offord, R. Kumar, W. J. Johnson, and B. L. Riggs. Differential effects of endocrine dysfunction on the axial and the appendicular skeleton. J. Clin. Invest. 69: 1302–1309, 1982.
 500. Segre, G. V., A. S. Perkins, L. A. Witters, and J. T. Potts. Metabolism of parathyroid hormone by isolated rat Kupffer cells and hepatocytes. J. Clin. Invest. 67: 449–457, 1981.
 501. Serros, E. R., A. Lowe, and M. A. Kirschenbaum. Prostaglandin dependent polyuria in conscious hypercalcemic rats. Clin. Res. 27: 430A, 1979.
 502. Sevitt, A., Healing of fractures. In: Scientific Foundations of Orthopaedics and Traumatology, edited by R. Owen, J. Goodfellow, and P. Bullough. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1980, p. 258–273.
 503. Seyberth, H. W., G. V. Segre, P. Hamet, B. J. Sweetman, J. T. Potts, and J. A. Oates. Characterization of a group of patients with the hypercalcemia of cancer who respond to treatment with prostaglandin synthesis inhibitors. Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians 89: 92–104, 1976.
 504. Shareghi, C. R., and D. Rouse. Calcium transport across segments of the rabbit distal nephron in vitro. Am. J. Physiol. 235 (Renal Fluid Electrolyte Physiol. 4): F367–F375, 1978.
 505. Shen, F. H., J. L. Ivey, D. J. Sherrard, R. L. Nielsen, M. R. Haussler, and D. J. Baylink. Further evidence supporting the phosphate leak hypothesis of idiopathic hypercalciuria. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 103 217–223, 1978.
 506. Shen, F. H., and D. J. Sherrard. Lithium‐induced hyperparathyroidism: an alteration of the “set point.” Ann. Intern. Med. 96: 63–65, 1982.
 507. Sherwood, L. M., J. H. L. O'Riordan, G. D. Aurbach, and J. T. Potts, Jr. Production of parathyroid hormone by nonparathyroid tissue. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 27: 140–146, 1967.
 508. Sherwood, L. M., J. T. Potts, Jr., A. D. Care, G. D. Mayer, and G. D. Aurbach. Evaluation by radioimmunoassay of factors controlling the secretion of parathyroid hormone. Nature 209: 52–55, 1966.
 509. Shils, M. Experimental human magnesium depletion. Medicine (Baltimore) 48: 61–85, 1969.
 510. Short, E. M., H. J. Binder, and L. E. Rosenberg. Familial hypophosphatemic rickets: defective transport of inorganic phosphate by intestinal mucosa. Science 179: 700–702, 1973.
 511. Short, E., R. C. Morris, Jr., and M. Spencer. Exaggerated phosphaturic response to circulating parathyroid hormone in patients with familial X‐linked hyphophosphatemic rickets. J. Clin. Invest. 58: 152–163, 1976.
 512. Silve, C., A. Santora, N. Breslau, A. Moses, and A. Spiegel. Selective resistance to parathyroid hormone in cultured skin fibroblasts from patients with pseudohypoparathyroidism type 1b. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62: 640–644, 1986.
 513. Silve, C., A. Santora, and A. Spiegel. A factor produced by cultured rat Leydig tumor (Rice‐500) cells associated with humoral hypercalcemia stimulates adenosine 3',5'‐monophosphate production via the parathyroid hormone receptor in human skin fibroblasts. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 60: 1144–1147, 1985.
 514. Silver, J., T. Naveh‐Many, H. Mayer, H. J. Schmelzer, M. M. Popovtzer. Regulation by vitamin D metabolites of parathyroid hormone gene transcription in vivo in the rat. J. Clin. Invest. 78: 1296–1301, 1986.
 515. Silver, J., J. Russell, D. Littieri, and L. M. Sherwood. Regulation by vitamin D metabolites of messenger RNA for preproparathyroid hormone in isolated bovine parathyroid cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 82: 4270–4273, 1985.
 516. Simpson, D. P. Regulation of renal citrate metabolism by bicarbonate ion and pH: observations on tissue slices and mitochondria. J. Clin. Invest. 46: 225–238, 1967.
 517. Simpson, E. L., G. R. Mundy, S. M. D'Souza, K. J. Ibbotson, R. Bockman, and J. W. Jacobs. Absence of parathyroid hormone messenger RNA in nonparathyroid tumors associated with hypercalcemia. N. Engl. J. Med. 309: 325–330, 1983.
 518. Simpson, R. U., and H. F. DeLuca. Characterization of a receptor‐like protein for 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D3. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 77: 5822–5826, 1980.
 519. Slatopolsky, E., J. Cagler, L. Gradowska, J. M. Canterbury, E. Reiss, and N. S. Bricker. On the prevention of secondary hyperparathyroidism in experimental chronic renal disease using “proportional reduction” of dietary phosphorus intake. Kidney Int. 2: 147–151, 1972.
 520. Slatopolsky, E., C. Weerts, J. Thielan, R. Horst, H. Harter, and K. J. Martin. Marked suppression of secondary hyperparathyroidism by intravenous administration of 1,25‐dihydroxycholecalciferol in uremic patients. J. Clin Invest. 74: 2136–2143, 1984.
 521. Smith, J. W., Recognizable patterns of human malformation: genetic, embryologic and clinical aspects. In: Major Problems in Clinical Pediatrics, edited by M. Markowitz. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1982, vol. 7.
 522. Smith, J. W. Molecular pattern in native collagen. Nature 219: 157–158, 1968.
 523. Somerman, M. J., L. W. Fisher, R. A. Foster, and J. J. Sauk. Human bone sialoproteins I and II enhance fibroblast attachment in vitro. Calcif. Tissue Int. 43: 50–53, 1988.
 524. Somjen, D., I. Binderman, E. Beyer, and A. Harell. Bone remodelling induced by physical stress is prostaglandin E2 mediated. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 627: 91–100, 1980.
 525. Spencer, E. M., and B. Tibiasson. The effects of hypophysectomy on 25‐hydroxyvitamin D3 metabolism in the rat. In: Vitamin D: Biochemical, Chemical and Clinical Aspects Related to Calcium Metabolism, edited by A. W. Norman, K. Schaefer, J. W. Coburn, H. F. DeLuca, D. Fraser, H. G. Grigoleit, and D. von Herrath. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1977, p. 197.
 526. Spiegel, A. M., P. Gierschik, M. A. Levine, and R. W. Downs, Jr. Clinical implications of guanine nucleotide binding proteins as receptor–effector couplers. N. Engl. J. Med. 312: 26–33, 1985.
 527. Spiegel, A. M., H. E. Harrison, S. J. Marx, E. M. Brown, and G. D. Aurbach. Neonatal primary hyperparathyroidism with autosomal dominant inheritance. J. Pediatr. 90: 269–272, 1977.
 528. Stamp, T. C. B., J. M. Round, D. J. F. Rowe, and J. G. Haddad. Plasma levels and therapeutic effects of 25‐hydroxycholecalciferol in epileptic patients taking anticonvulsant drugs. Br. Med. J. 4: 9–12, 1972.
 529. Stewart, A. F., M Adler, C. M. Byers, G. V. Segre, and A. E. Broadus. Calcium homeostasis in immobilization: an example of resorptive hypercalciuria. N. Engl. J. Med. 306: 1136–1140, 1982.
 530. Stewart, A. F. and A. E. Broadus. Mineral metabolism. In: Endocrinology and Metabolism (2nd ed.), edited by P. Felig, J. D. Baxter, A. E. Broadus, and L. A. Frohman. New York: McGraw‐Hill, 1987, p. 1317–1453.
 531. Stewart, A. F., R. Horst, L. J. Deftos, E. C. Cadman, R. Lang, and A. E. Broadus. Biochemical evaluation of patients with cancer‐associated hypercalemia: evidence for humoral and non‐humoral groups. N. Engl. J. Med. 303: 1377–1380, 1980.
 532. Stewart, A. F., K. L. Insogna, D. Goltzman, and A. E. Broadus. Identification of adenylate cyclase–stimulating activity in extracts of tumors from patients with humoral hypercalcemia of malignany. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80: 1454–1458, 1983.
 533. Stewart, A. F., A. Vignery, A. Silverglate, N. D. Ravin, V. Livolsi, A. E. Broadus, and R. Baron. Quantitative bone histomorphometry in humoral hypercalcemia of malignancy: uncoupling of bone cell activity. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 55: 219–227, 1982.
 534. Stoll, B. A., The basis of endocrine therapy. In: Endocrine Therapy in Malignant Disease, edited by B. A. Stoll. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1972, p. 125–126.
 535. Strawich, E., and Nimmi, M. E. Properties of a collagen molecule containing three identical components extracted from bovine particular cartilage. Biochemistry 10: 3905–3911, 1971.
 536. Strewler, G. J., T. J. Wronski, B. P. Halloran, et al. Pathogenesis of hypercalcemia in nude mice bearing a human renal carcinoma. Endocrinology 119: 303–310, 1986.
 537. Sugimoto, T., M. Fukase, M. Tsutsumi, M. Nakada, R. Hishikawa, T. Tsunenari, Y. Yoshimoto, and T. Fugita. Impaired parathyroid hormone–stimulated adenosine 3',5'‐monophosphate release by isolated perfused bones obtained from vitamin D–deficient rats. Endocrinology 118: 1808–1813, 1986.
 538. Suki, W. M., G. Eknoyan, and F. C. J. Rector. The renal diluting and concentrating mechanism in hypercalcemia. Nephron 6: 50–61, 1969.
 539. Sutton, R. A. L. Plasma magnesium concentration in primary hyperparathyroidism. Br. Med. J. 1: 529–533, 1970.
 540. Sutton, R. A. L. Effects of vitamin D on renal tubular calcium transport. In: Proc. Int. Congr. Nephrol, 7th. 463, 1978.
 541. Sutton, R. A. L., and J. H. Dirks. Calcium and magnesium: renal handling and disorders of metabolism. In: The Kidney (3rd ed.), edited by B. M. Brenner, and F. C. Rector, Jr. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1986, p. 551–618.
 542. Sutton, R. A. L., N. L. M. Wong, and J. H. Dirks. Effects of metabolic acidosis and alkalosis on sodium and calcium transport in the dog kidney. Kidney Int. 15: 520–533, 1979.
 543. Suva, L. J., G. A. A. Winslow, R. E. H. Wettenhall, R. G. Hammonds, J. M. Moseley, H. Diefenbach‐Jagger. A parathyroid hormone‐like peptide implicated in malignant hypercalcemia: cloning and expression. Science 237: 893–896, 1987.
 544. Szabo, A., J. Merke, E. Beier, G. Mall, and E. Ritz. 1,25‐(OH)2‐vitamin D3 inhibits parathyroid cell proliferation in experimental uremia. Kidney Int. 35: 1049–1056, 1989.
 545. Takahashi, N., G. R. Mundy, and G. D. Roodman. Recombinant gamma interferon inhibits formation of human osteoclast‐like cells. J. Immunol. 137: 3541–3549, 1979.
 546. Takaichi, K., and K. Kurokawa. Inhibitory guanosine triphosphate–binding protein‐mediated regulation of vasopressin action in isolated single medullary tubules of mouse kidney. J. Clin. Invest. 82: 1437–1444, 1988.
 547. Takamoto, S., H. Tsuchiya, T. Onishi, S. Morimto, S. Imanaka, S. Mori, Y. Seino, T. Uozumi, and Y. Kumahara. Changes in calcium homeostasis in acromegaly treated by pituitary adenomectomy. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 61: 7–11, 1985.
 548. Talmage, R. V., S. A. Grubb, H. Nonmatsu, and C. J. Vanderwiel. Evidence for an important physiological role for calcitonin. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 77: 609–613, 1980.
 549. Tam, C. S., J. N. M. Heersche, T. M. Murray, and J. A. Parsons. Parathyroid hormone stimulates the bone apposition rate independently of its resorptive action: differential effects of intermittent and continuous administration. Endocrinology 110: 506–512, 1982.
 550. Tanaka, Y., and H. F. DeLuca. The control of 25‐hydroxyvitamin D metabolism by inorganic phosphorus. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 154: 566–574, 1973.
 551. Tanzer, M. L., Collagen biosynthesis and degradation. In: Disorders of Mineral Metabolism, edited by F. Bronner, and J. W. Coburn. New York: Academic, 1982, vol. 3, p. 237–270.
 552. Tashjian, A. H. Jr., E. L. Hohmann, H. N. Antoniades, and L. Levine. Platelet‐derived growth factor stimulates bone resorption via a prostaglandin‐mediated mechanism. Endocrinology 111: 118–121, 1982.
 553. Tashjian, A. H., Jr., and L. Levine. Epidermal growth factor stimulates prostaglandin production and bone resorption in cultured mouse calvaria. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 85: 966–975, 1978.
 554. Taylor, A. N., J. E. McIntosh, and J. E. Bourdeau. Immunocytochemical localization of vitamin D–dependent calcium‐binding protein in renal tubules of the rabbit, rat and chick. Kidney Int. 21: 765–773, 1982.
 555. Teitelbaum, S. L., Pathology of uremic bone disease. In: Divalent Ion Homeostasis, edited by B. M. Brenner and J. H. Stein. New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1983, p. 223–259.
 556. Teitelbaum, S. L. Renal osteolystrophy. Hum. Pathol. 15: 306–323, 1984.
 557. Tenenhouse, H. S. Abnormal renal mitochondrial 25‐hydroxyvitamin D3–1‐hydroxylase activity in the vitamin D and calcium deficient X‐linked HYP mouse. Endocrinology 113: 816–818, 1983.
 558. Tenenhouse, H. S., and C. R. Scriver. Renal brush border membrane adaption to phosphorus deprivation in the Hyp/Y mouse. Nature 281: 225–227, 1979.
 559. Tenenhouse, H. S., C. R. Scriver, R. R. McInnes, and F. Glorieux. Renal handling of phosphate in vivo and in vitro by the X‐linked hypophosphatemic male mouse: evidence for a defect in the brush border membrane. Kidney Int. 14: 236–244, 1978.
 560. Termine, J. D., H. K. Kleinman, J. W. Whitson, K. M. Conn, M. L. McGarvey, and G. R. Martin. Osteonectin: a bone‐specific protein linking mineral to collagen. Cell 26: 99–105, 1981.
 561. Thiede, M. A. The mRNA encoding a parathyroid hormone‐like peptide is produced in mammary tissue in response to elevations in serum prolactin. Mol. Endocrinol. 3: 1443–1447, 1989.
 562. Thiede, M. A., G. J. Strewler, R. A. Nissenson, M. Rosenblatt, and G. A. Rodan. Human renal carcinoma expresses two messages encoding a parathyroid hormone‐like peptide: evidence for the alternative splicing of a single‐copy gene. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85: 4605–4609, 1988.
 563. Tieder, M., D. Modai, R. Samuel, R. Arie, A. Hababe, I. Bab, D. Gabizon, and U. A. Liberman. Hereditary hypophosphatemic rickets with hypercalciuria. N. Engl. J. Med. 312: 611–617, 1985.
 564. Tonna, E. A. Osteoclasts and the aging skeleton: a cytological, cytochemical and autoradiographic study. Anat. Rec. 137: 251–270, 1960.
 565. Traub, W., and K. Piez. The chemistry and structure of collagen. Adv. Protein Chem. 25: 243–352, 1971.
 566. Treschel, U., J. A. Eisman, J. A. Fischer, J. B. Bonjour, and H. Fleisch. Calcium‐dependent, parathyroid hormone–independent regulation of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D. Am. J. Physiol. 239 (Endocrinol. Metab. 21): E119–E124, 1980.
 567. Triffitt, J. T., M. E. Owen, B. A. Ashton, and J. M. Wilson. Plasma disappearance of rabbit α2‐HS glycoprotein and its uptake by bone tissue. Calcif. Tissue Res. 26: 155–161, 1978.
 568. Tschope, W., E. Ritz, B. Schellenberg, L. Arab, and G. Schlierf. Deceased plasma phosphate under hormonal contraceptives. Miner. Electrolyte Metab. 10: 88–91, 1984.
 569. Tsoukas, C. D., D. M. Provedini, and S. Monolagas. 1,25 dihydroxyvitamin D3: a novel immunoregulatory hormone. Science 224: 1438–1440, 1984.
 570. Van, P. T., A. Vignery, and R. Baron. An electron‐microscopic study of the bone remodeling sequence in the rat. Cell Tissue Res. 223: 283–292, 1982.
 571. Van Hoff, W., F. W. Ballerdie, and E. J. Bicknell. Primary hyperparathyroidism: the case for medical management. Br. Med. J. 287: 6605–6608, 1983.
 572. Walker, R. G., W. M. Bennett, and P. Kincaid‐Smith. Functional and structural effects of long‐term lithium therapy: comparison with age‐matched psychiatric patients and transplant donor kidneys. Kidney Int. 21: 160A, 1982.
 573. Walton, R. J., and O. L. M. Bijovet. Nomogram for determination of renal threshold phosphate concentration. Lancet 2: 309–310, 1975.
 574. Wasnich, R. D., R. J. Beufante, and K. Yaro. Thiazide effect on the mineral content of bone. N. Engl. J. Med. 309: 344–347, 1983.
 575. Weisinger, J. R., M. J. Farus, C. B. Langman, and D. A. Bushinsky. Regulation of 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin A3 by calcium in the parathyroidectomized, parathyroid hormone replete rat. J. Bone Miner. Res. 4: 929–935, 1989.
 576. Wills, M. R., and M. V. Jenkins. The effect of uremic metabolites on parathyroid extract induced bone resorption in vitro. Clin. Chim. Acta 73: 121–125, 1976.
 577. Wilson, R. J., D. S. Rao, B. Ellis, M. Kleerekoper, and A. M. Parfitt. Mild asymptomatic primary hyperparathyroidism is not a risk factor for vertebral fractures. Ann. Intern. Med. 109: 959–962, 1989.
 578. Wortsman, J., J. G. Haddad, J. T. Posillico, and E. M. Brown. Primary hyperparathyroidism with low serum 1,25‐dihydroxyvitamin D levels. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 62: 1305–1308, 1986.
 579. Yamamoto, M., T. Igarishi, M. Muramatsu, M. Fukagawa, T. Motokura, and E. Ogata. Hypocalcemia increases and hypercalcemia decreases the steady state level of parathyroid hormone messenger RNA in the rat. J. Clin. Invest. 83: 1053–1506, 1989.
 580. Yamamoto, M., Y. Takuwa, S. Masuko, and E. Ogata. Effects of endogenous and exogenous parathyroid hormone on tubular reabsorption of calcium in pseudohypoparathyroidism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 66: 618–625, 1988.
 581. Yasuda, T., D. Bonville, G. N. Hendy, and D. Goltzman. Characterization of the human parathyroid hormone‐like peptide gene: functional and evolutionary aspects. J. Biol. Chem. 264: 7720–7725, 1989.
 582. Yoshida, H., S.‐I. Hayashi, T. Kunisada, M. Ogawa, S. Nishikawa, H. Okamura, T. Sudo, L. D. Shultz, and S.‐I. Nishikawa. The murine mutation osteopetrosis is in the coding region of the macrophage colony stimulating factor gene. Nature 345: 442–444, 1990.
 583. Zachmann, M., and A. Pader. Anabolic and androgenic effects of testosterone in sexually immature boys and its dependency on growth hormones. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 30: 85–95, 1970.
 584. Zaidi, M., H. K. Datta, A. Patchell, B. Moonga, and I. MacIntyre. “Calcium‐activated” intracellular calcium elevation: a novel mechanism of osteoclast regulation. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 163: 1461–1465, 1989.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Kidney and Bone: Physiological and Pathophysiological Relationships
 

How to Cite

Edward M. Brown. Kidney and Bone: Physiological and Pathophysiological Relationships. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 25: Handbook of Physiology, Renal Physiology: 1841-1916. First published in print 1992. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp080239