Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library

Energy Utilization

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 Energy Metabousm and Body Composition
2 Tissue Mass and Tissue Metabolism
3 Mitochondrial Content and Mitochondrial Metabolism
4 Whole‐Body Metabolic Rate
4.1 Twenty‐Four‐Hour Energy Expenditure
4.2 Components of 24‐Hour Energy Expenditure
4.3 Efficiency and Energy Utilization
5 Factors Modulating Metabolic Rate
5.1 Temperature
5.2 Neuroendocrine Factors
5.3 Dietary Restriction
6 Metabolic Rate of Poikilotherms as A Function of Age
7 Energy Metabolism and Theories of Aging
7.1 Rate of Living Theory
7.2 Free Radical Theory
8 Conclusions
Figure 1. Figure 1.

Variation of lean body mass (LBM) with age in males and females. Cross‐sectional data obtained using techniques of densitometry (o), total body water (+) and fat‐soluble gases (○).

Reproduced from Forbes 64 with permission
Figure 2. Figure 2.

Changes in lean body mass (LBM) during the life span of Fischer 344 rats. Longitudinal study in which similar symbols refer to repeated measures of same rat. Group A refers to rats fed ad libitum. Upper panel shows data derived from six longest‐lived rats, lower panel from eight shortest‐lived rats, from a colony of 115 rats.

Reproduced from Yu et al. 215 with permission
Figure 3. Figure 3.

Changes in fat mass over the life span of Fischer 344 rats. Longitudinal measurements in which similar symbols refer to repeated measures of the same rat. Panel A shows data derived from six longest‐lived rats. Panel B shows data from eight shortest‐lived rats.

Reproduced from Bertrand et al. 133 with permission
Figure 4. Figure 4.

Changes of basal metabolic rate (BMR) with age expressed in terms of body weight (solid circles, solid line), surface area (solid circles, dashed line), and summed weight of vital organs (open circles).

Reproduced from Elia 52 with permission
Figure 5. Figure 5.

Components of 24EE.

Reproduced from Elia 51 with permission
Figure 6. Figure 6.

Total daily energy expenditure of young (24 ± 4 yr, open circles) and old (71 ± 6 yr, solid circles) men and women as a function of FFM.

Reproduced from Vaughan et al. 201 with permission
Figure 7. Figure 7.

Total daily energy expenditure of male Fischer 344 rats under usual living conditions. Metabolic rate measured from 6 wk to 24 months of age. Solid squares, rats fed ad libitum; open circles, rats fed 60% ad libitum.

Reproduced from McCarter and Palmer 124 with permission
Figure 8. Figure 8.

Oxygen consumption of male milkweed bugs with age and at different ambient temperatures.

Reproduced from McArthur and Sohal 121 with permission
Figure 9. Figure 9.

Life span of selected mammals as a function of metabolic rate. LSP, life span potential, measured as life span in years for 90% mortality; SMR, specific metabolic rate, measured as basal metabolism in calories per gram body weight per day.

Reproduced from Cutler 37 with permission


Figure 1.

Variation of lean body mass (LBM) with age in males and females. Cross‐sectional data obtained using techniques of densitometry (o), total body water (+) and fat‐soluble gases (○).

Reproduced from Forbes 64 with permission


Figure 2.

Changes in lean body mass (LBM) during the life span of Fischer 344 rats. Longitudinal study in which similar symbols refer to repeated measures of same rat. Group A refers to rats fed ad libitum. Upper panel shows data derived from six longest‐lived rats, lower panel from eight shortest‐lived rats, from a colony of 115 rats.

Reproduced from Yu et al. 215 with permission


Figure 3.

Changes in fat mass over the life span of Fischer 344 rats. Longitudinal measurements in which similar symbols refer to repeated measures of the same rat. Panel A shows data derived from six longest‐lived rats. Panel B shows data from eight shortest‐lived rats.

Reproduced from Bertrand et al. 133 with permission


Figure 4.

Changes of basal metabolic rate (BMR) with age expressed in terms of body weight (solid circles, solid line), surface area (solid circles, dashed line), and summed weight of vital organs (open circles).

Reproduced from Elia 52 with permission


Figure 5.

Components of 24EE.

Reproduced from Elia 51 with permission


Figure 6.

Total daily energy expenditure of young (24 ± 4 yr, open circles) and old (71 ± 6 yr, solid circles) men and women as a function of FFM.

Reproduced from Vaughan et al. 201 with permission


Figure 7.

Total daily energy expenditure of male Fischer 344 rats under usual living conditions. Metabolic rate measured from 6 wk to 24 months of age. Solid squares, rats fed ad libitum; open circles, rats fed 60% ad libitum.

Reproduced from McCarter and Palmer 124 with permission


Figure 8.

Oxygen consumption of male milkweed bugs with age and at different ambient temperatures.

Reproduced from McArthur and Sohal 121 with permission


Figure 9.

Life span of selected mammals as a function of metabolic rate. LSP, life span potential, measured as life span in years for 90% mortality; SMR, specific metabolic rate, measured as basal metabolism in calories per gram body weight per day.

Reproduced from Cutler 37 with permission
References
 1. Acheson, K. J., Y. Schutz, T. Bessard, K. Anantharam, J. P. Flatt, and E. Jequier. Glycogen storage capacity and de novo lipogenesis during massive carbohydrate overfeeding in man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 48: 240–247, 1988.
 2. Arking, R., S. Buck, R. A. Wells, and R. Pretzlaff. Metabolic rates in genetically based long‐lived strains of Drosophila. Exp. Gerontol. 23: 59–76, 1988.
 3. Astrup, A. L., L. Simonsen, J. Bullow, J. Madsen, and N. J. Christensen. Epinephrine mediates facultative, carbohydrate‐induced thermogenesis in human skeletal muscle. Am. J. Physiol. 257: E340–E345, 1989.
 4. Austad, S. N. Testing the rate‐of‐living theory of longevity. Gerontol. News. 8: 4, 1991.
 5. Austad, S. N., and K. E. Fischer. Mammalian aging, metabolism and ecology: evidence from the bats and marsupials. J. Gerontol. 46: B47–B53, 1991.
 6. Balmagiya, T., and S. J. Rosovsky. Age‐related changes in thermoregulation in male albino rats. Exp. Gerontol. 18: 199–210, 1983.
 7. Barrows, C. H., L. M. Roeder, and J. A. Falzone. Effect of age on the activities of enzymes and the concentration of nucleic acids in the tissues of female wild rats. J. Gerontol. 17: 144–147, 1962.
 8. Beattie, J., and P. H. Herbert. The estimation of metabolic rate in the starvation state. Br. J. Nutr. 1: 185–191, 1947.
 9. Benedict, F. G. Vital Energetics. A Study in Comparative Basal Metabolism. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publication 503, 1938, p. 1–215.
 10. Benedict, F. G., and G. MacLeod. The heat production of the albino rat. II. Influence of environmental temperature, age and sex; comparison with basal metabolism in man. J. Nutr. 1: 381–395, 1929.
 11. Benedict, F. G., W. R. Miles, P. Roth, and M. Smith. Human Vitality and Efficiency under Prolonged Restricted Diet. Washington DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publication 280, 1919, p. 1–701.
 12. Bennett, A. J. Activity metabolism of the lower vertebrates. Ann. Rev. Physiol. 400: 447–469, 1978.
 13. Bernstein, R. S., J. C. Thornton, and M. U. Young. Prediction of resting metabolic rate in obese patients. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 37: 595–602, 1983.
 14. Bertrand, H. A., F. T. Lynd, E. J. Masoro, and B. P. Yu. Changes in adipose mass and cellularity through the adult life of rats fed ad libitum or a life‐prolonging restricted diet. J. Gerontol. 35: 827–835, 1980.
 15. Boothby, W., and I. Sandiford. Normal values for standard metabolism. Am. J. Physiol. 90: 290–291, 1929.
 16. Boothby, W. M., and I. Sandiford. Summary of the basal metabolism data on 8614 subjects with special reference to the normal standards for the estimation of the basal metabolism rate. J. Biochem. 54: 783–803, 1922.
 17. Bouchard, C., A. Tremblay, A. Nadeau, J. P. Després, G. Theriault, M. R. Boulay, G. Lortie, C. Leblanc and G. Fournier. Genetic effect in resting and exercise metabolic rates. Metabolism 38: 364–370, 1989.
 18. Brody, S. Bioenergetics and Growth. New York: Reinhold, 1945, 972 p.
 19. Brooks, G. A., and T. D. Fahey. Exercise Physiology. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1984, 726 p.
 20. Brown, A. C., Energy metabolism. In: Physiology and Biophysics, vol. 3, edited by T. C. Ruch and H. D. Patton. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders, 1973, p. 85–104.
 21. Brown, W. M., M. George, and A. C. Wilson. Rapid evolution of animal mitochondrial DNA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 76: 1976–1971, 1979.
 22. Brozek, J. Human Body Composition. London: Pergamon Press, 1965, 311 p.
 23. Budd, G. M., J. R. Brotherhood, A. L. Hendric, and G. E. Jeffery. Effects of fitness, fatness and age on men's responses to whole body cooling in air. J. Appl. Physiol. 71: 2387–2393, 1991.
 24. Buono, M. J., B. K. McKenzie, and F. W. Kasch. Effects of ageing and physical training on the peripheral sweat production of human eccrine sweat gland. Age Ageing 20: 439–441, 1991.
 25. Burns, E. M., T. W. Kruckerberg, L. E. Comerford, and M. T. Muschmann. Thinning of capillary walls and declining numbers of endothelial mitochondria in the cerebral cortex. J. Gerontol. 34: 642, 1979.
 26. Cand, F., and J. Verditti. Superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, catalase and lipid peroxidation in the major organs of the aging rat. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 7: 59–63, 1989.
 27. Cardenas, E. Biochemistry of oxygen toxicity. Ann. Rev. Biochem. 58: 79–110, 1989.
 28. Cathcart, R., E. Schwiers, R. L. Salu, and B. N. Ames. Thymine glycol and thymidine glycol in human and rat urine: a possible assay for oxidative DNA damage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 81: 5633–5637, 1984.
 29. Cerami, A. Hypothesis: glucose as a mediator of aging. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 33: 626–634, 1985.
 30. Clark, S. M., J. T. Gean, and J. M. Lipton. Reduced febrile responses to peripheral and central administration of pyrogen in aged squirrel monkeys. Neurobiol. Aging 1: 175–180, 1980.
 31. Clayton, D. A. Replication of animal mitochondrial DNA. Cell 28: 693–705, 1982.
 32. Collins, K. J., and A. N. Extonnm‐Smith. Thermal homeostasis in old age. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 31: 519–524, 1983.
 33. Collins, K. J., and A. N. Exton‐Smith. Urban hypothermia preferred temperature and thermal perception in old age. Br. Med. J. 282: 175–177, 1981.
 34. Cunningham, D., H. Montoye, H. Metzner, and J. Keller. Active leisure time activities as related to age among males in a total population. J. Gerontol. 23: 551–556, 1968.
 35. Cunningham, J. J. A re‐analysis of the factors influencing basal metabolic rate in normal adults. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 33: 2372–2374, 1980.
 36. Cunningham, J. J. Body composition and resting metabolic rate: the myth of feminine metabolism. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 36: 721–726, 1982.
 37. Cutler, R., Anti‐oxidants, aging and longevity. In: Free Radicals in Biology 6, edited by W. A. Pryor. Orlando: Academic Press, 1984, p. 381.
 38. D'Alessio, D. A., E. C. Kavle, M. A. Mozzoli, K. J. Smalley, M. Polansky, Z. V. Kendrick, L. R. Owen, M. C. Bushman, G. Bowden, and O. E. Owen. Thermic effect of food in lean and obese men. J. Clin. Invest. 81: 1781–1789, 1988.
 39. Davies, C. T. M. Thermoregulation during exercise in relation to sex and age. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 42: 71–79, 1979.
 40. Davies, K. J. A. Intracellular proteolytic systems may function as secondary anti‐oxidant defenses. An hypothesis. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 2: 155–173, 1986.
 41. Davies, M. On body size and tissue respiration. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 57: 135–147, 1961.
 42. Davis, B. B., and T. V. Zenser. Biological changes in thermoregulation in the elderly. In: Homeostatic Function and Aging, edited by B. B. Davis and W. G. Wood. New York: Raven Press, 1985, p. 157–166.
 43. Davis, J. E. The effect of advancing age on the oxygen consumption of rats. Am. J. Physiol. 119: 28–33, 1937.
 44. Deemple, B., and J. Halbrook. Inducible repair of oxidative DNA damage in Escherichia coli. Nature (Land.) 304: 466–468, 1983.
 45. Denckla, W. D. Role of pituitary and thyroid glands in the decline of minimal O2 consumption with age. J. Clin. Invest. 53: 572–581, 1974.
 46. Detenbeck, L. C., and J. Jowsey. Normal aging in the bone of the adult dog. Clin. Orthop. 65: 76–80, 1969.
 47. Donda, A., and T. Lamarchand‐Beraud. Aging alters the activity of 5'‐deiodinase in the adenohypophysis, thyroid gland and liver of the male rat. Endocrinology 124: 1305–1309, 1989.
 48. Duffy, P. H., R. J. Feuers, J. A. Leakey, K. Nakamura, A. Turturro, and R. W. Hart. Effect of chronic caloric restriction on physiological variables related to energy metabolism in the male Fischer 344 rat. Mech. Ageing Dev. 48: 117–133, 1989.
 49. Economos, A. C. Beyond rate of living. Gerontology 27: 258–265, 1981.
 50. Elahi, V. K., D. Elahi, R. Andres, J. D. Tobin, M. G. Butler, and A. H. Norris. A longitudinal study of nutritional intake in men. J. Gerontol. 38: 162–180, 1983.
 51. Elia, M., Energy expenditure in the whole body. In: Energy Metabolism, edited by J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker. New York: Raven Press, 1991a, p. 19–59.
 52. Elia, M., Organ and tissue contribution to metabolic rate. In: Energy Metabolism, edited by J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker. New York: Raven Press, 1991b, p. 61–79.
 53. Else, P. L., and A. J. Hulbert. Comparison of the “mammal machine” and the “reptile machine”: energy production. Am. J. Physiol. 240: R3–R9, 1981.
 54. Else, P. L., and A. J. Hulbert. An allometric comparison of the mitochondria of mammalian and reptilian tissues: the implications for the evolution of endothermy. J. Comp. Physiol. [B] 156: 3–11, 1985a.
 55. Else, P. L., and A. J. Hulbert. Mammals: an allometric study of metabolism at tissue and mitochondrial level. Am. J. Physiol. 248: R415–R421, 1985b.
 56. Emorine, L. J., S. Marullo, M. Briend‐Sutren, G. Patey, K. Tate, C. Delavier‐Klutchko, and A. D. Strosberg. Molecular characterization of the human β‐3 adrenergic receptor. Science 245: 1118–1121, 1989.
 57. Enesco, H. E., A. McTavish, and R. Garberi. Spontaneous activity level and lifespan in rotifers: lack of support for the rate of living theory. Gerontology 36: 256–261, 1990.
 58. Enoka, R. M. Neuromechanical Basis of Kinesiology (2nd ed), Human Kinetics, (In press).
 59. Felton, S. Y., D. L. Bellinger, T. J. Collier, P. D. Coleman, and D. L. Felton. Decreased sympathetic innervation of spleen in aged Fischer 344 rats. Neurobiol. Aging 8: 159–165, 1987.
 60. Ferguson, A. V., W. L. Veale, and K. E. Cooper. Age‐related differences in the febrile response of the New Zealand white rabbit to endotoxin. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 59: 613–614, 1981.
 61. Flatt, J. P., Energy costs of ATP synthesis. In: Energy Metabolism: Tissue Determinants and Cellular Corollaries, edited by J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker. New York: Raven Press, 1992, p. 319–343.
 62. Flatt, J. P., E. Ravussin, K. J. Acheson, and E. Jequier. Effects of dietary fat on post‐prandial substrate oxidation and carbohydrate and fat balances. J. Clin. Invest. 76: 1019–1024, 1985.
 63. Florini, J. R., and J. F. Regan. Age‐related changes in hormone secretion and action. Rev. Biol. Res. Aging 2: 227–250, 1985.
 64. Forbes, G. B. Human Body Composition. New York: Springer‐Verlag, 1986, 341 p.
 65. Foster, D. O., and M. L. Frydman. Tissue distribution of cold‐induced thermogenesis in conscious warm or cold‐acclimated rats re‐evaluated from changes in tissue blood flow: the dominant role of brown adipose tissue in the replacement of shivering by non‐shivering thermogenesis. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 57: 257–270, 1978a.
 66. Foster, D. O., and M. L. Frydman. Non‐shivering thermogenesis in the rat II. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 56: 110–122, 1978b.
 67. Fukagawa, N. K., L. G. Bandani, and J. B. Young. Effect of age on body composition and resting metabolic rate. Am. J. Physiol. 259: E233–E238, 1990.
 68. Gambert, S. R. Effect of age on the conversion of thyroxine (T4) to 3,5,3' tri‐iodothyronine (T3) by liver homogenate from fed and fasted Sprague‐Dawley rats. Age 5: 88–91, 1982.
 69. Garrow, J. S. Energy Balance and Obesity in Man. Oxford: Elsevier/North Holland, 1978, 195 p.
 70. Gerschman, R., D. L. Gilbert, S. W. Nye, P. Dwyer, and W. O. Fenn. Oxygen poisoning and X‐irradiation: a mechanism in common. Science 19: 623–629, 1954.
 71. Gonzales‐Pacheco, D. M., W. C. Buss, K. M. Koehler, W. F. Woodside, and S. S. Alpert. Energy restriction reduces metabolic rate in adult male Fischer‐344 rats. J. Nutr. 123: 90–97, 1993.
 72. Grande, F., and A. Keys. Body weight, body composition and calorie status. In: Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease, edited by R. S. Goodhart and M. S. Shils. Philadelphia: Lea‐Febiger, 1980, p. 3–34.
 73. Gregerman, R. I., The age‐related alteration of thyroid function and thyroid hormone metabolism in man. In: Endocrines and Aging, edited by L. Gitman. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1964, p. 161–173.
 74. Hardy, J. D. Physiology of temperature regulation. Physiol. Rev. 41: 521–606, 1961.
 75. Harman, D. Aging: a theory based on free radical and radiation chemistry. J. Gerontol. 11: 298–300, 1956.
 76. Hellon, R. F., and A. R. Lind. The influence of age on peripehral vasodilation in a hot environment. J. Physiol. (Lond.) 141: 262–272, 1958.
 77. Henri, C. J. K., and D. G. Rees. Basal metabolic rate and race. In: Comparative Nutrition, edited by K. Blaxten, and I. Macdonald. Paris: John Libbey, 1988, p. 149–161.
 78. Herbener, G. H. A morphometric study of age‐dependent changes in the mitochondrial populations of mouse liver and heart. J. Gerontol. 31: 8–16, 1976.
 79. Herlihy, J. T., C. Stacy, and H. Bertrand. Effect of age and diet on the serum thyroid hormone levels in Fischer 344 rats. Gerontologist 30: A109, 1990.
 80. Heusner, A. Body size and energy metabolism. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 5: 267–293, 1985.
 81. Holliday, M. A. Metabolic rate and organ size during growth from infancy to maturity and during late gestation and early infancy. Paediatrics 47: 169–177, 1971.
 82. Holloszy, J. O., and K. Smith. Longevity of cold‐exposed rats: a re‐evaluation of the “rate of living theory.” J. Appl. Physiol. 61: 1656–1660, 1986.
 83. Holloszy, J. O., E. K. Smith, M. Vining, and S. Adams. Effect of voluntary exercise on longevity of rats. J. Appl. Physiol. 59: 826–831, 1985.
 84. Horst, K. L. O., L. B. Mendel, and F. G. Benedict. The influence of previous diet, growth and age upon the basal metabolism of the rat. J. Nutr. 8: 139–162, 1934.
 85. Hulbert, A. J., W. Mantaj, and P. A. Janssens. Development of mammalian endothermic metabolism: quantitative changes in tissue mitochondria. Am. J. Physiol. 261: R561–R568, 1991.
 86. Inoue, Y., M. Nakao, T. Araki, and H. Murakami. Regional differences in the sweating responses of older and younger men. J. Appl. Physiol. 71: 2453–2459, 1991.
 87. James, W. P. T., From SDA to DOT to TEF. In: Energy Metabolism: Tissue Determinants and Cellular Corollaries, edited by J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker. New York: Raven Press, 1992, p. 163–183.
 88. Jepson, M. M., D. J. Millward, M. J. Rothwell, and M. J. Stock. Involvement of sympathetic nervous system and brown fat in endotoxin‐induced fever in rats. Am. J. Physiol. 255: E617–E620, 1988.
 89. Jequier, E., Discussion. In: Energy Metabolism: Tissue Determinants and Cellular Corollaries, edited by J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker. New York: Raven Press, 1992, p. 183–186.
 90. Jequier, E., and Y. Schutz. Energy expenditure in obesity and diabetes. Diabetes Metab. Rev. 4: 583–593, 1988.
 91. Jones, P. G., C. A. Kauffman, A. G. Bergman, C. M. Hayes, M. J. Klueger, and J. G. Cannon. Production of leukocytic pyrogen by monocytes from elderly persons. Gerontology 30: 182–187, 1984.
 92. Kenney, W. L. Control of heat‐induced cutaneous vasodilation in relation to age. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 57: 120–125, 1988.
 93. Kenney, W. L., and J. Johnson. Control of skin blood flow during exercise. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 24: 303–312, 1992.
 94. Keys, A., J. Brozek, A. Hanschel, O. Mickelson, and H. L. Taylor. The Biology of Human Starvation. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1950, 385 p.
 95. Khan, F., V. A. Spence, and J. J. F. Belch. Cutaneous vascular responses and thermoregulation in relation to age. Clin. Sci. 82: 521–528, 1992.
 96. Kleiber, M. Body size and metabolism. Hilgardia 6: 315–353, 1932.
 97. Kleiber, M. The Fire of Life. New York: Krieger Publishing Co., 1975.
 98. Korenchevsky, V. Physiological and Pathological Aging. Basel: Karger Press, 1961, p. 38–47.
 99. Krebs, H. A. Body size and tissue respiration. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 4: 249–269, 1950.
 100. Kregel, K. C., C. M. Tipton, and D. R. Seals. Thermal adjustments to nonexertional heat stress in mature and senescent Fischer 344 rats. J. Appl. Physiol. 68: 1337–1342, 1990.
 101. Kristal, B., and B. P. Yu. An emerging hypothesis: synergistic induction of aging by free radicals and maillard reactions. J. Gerontol. 47: B107–B114, 1992.
 102. Krogh, A. The Respiratory Exchange of Animals and Man. London: Longmans Green, 1916.
 103. Laganiere, S., and B. P. Yu. Anti‐lipoperoxidation action of food restriction. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 145: 1185–1191, 1987.
 104. Larkin, L., B. A. Horowitz, and R. B. McDonald. Effect of cold on serum substrate and glycogen concentration in young and old Fischer 344 rats. Exp. Gerontol. 27: 179–190, 1992.
 105. Lean, M. E. J., W. P. T. James, G. Jennings, and P. Trayhurn. Brown adipose tissue uncoupling protein content in human infants, children and adults. Clin. Sci. 71: 291–297, 1986.
 106. Lee, D. W., and B. P. Yu. Modulation of free radicals and superoxide dismutase by age and dietary restriction. Aging 2: 357–362, 1990.
 107. Linnane, A. W. Mitochondria and aging: the universality of bioenergetic disease. Aging 4: 267–271, 1992.
 108. Lints, F. A., Insects. In: Handbook of the Biology of Aging (2nd ed.), edited by C. E. Finch and E. L. Schneider. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1985, p. 146–169.
 109. Lints, F. A. The rate of living theory revisited. Gerontology 35: 36–57, 1989.
 110. Loeb, J., and J. H. Northrop. On the influence of food and temperature on the duration of life. J. Biol. Chem. 32: 103–121, 1917.
 111. Loschen, G., L. Flohe, and P. Chance. Respiratory chain linked H2 O2 production in pigeon heart mitochondria. FEBS Lett. 18: 261–264, 1971.
 112. Lybarger, J. A., and E. H. Kilbourne. Hyperthermia and hypothermia in the elderly: an epidemiologic review. In: Homeostatic Function and Aging, edited by B. B. Davis and W. G. Wood. New York: Raven Press, 1985, p. 149–156.
 113. Lynn, W. S., and J. C. Wallwork. Does food restriction retard aging by reducing metabolic rate? J. Nutr. 122: 1917–1918, 1992.
 114. Lynn, W. S., J. C. Wallwork, and D. H. Coppenhaver. Overnutrition, uncontrolled organ growth and apoptosis. J. Appl. Nutr. 44: 3–15, 1992.
 115. Martin, P. E., D. E. Rothstein, and D. D. Larish. Effects of age and physical activity status on the speed‐aerobic demand relationship of walking. J. Appl. Physiol. 73: 200–206, 1992.
 116. Masoro, E. J. Metabolism, In: Handbook of the Biology of Aging (2nd ed.), edited by C. E. Finch and E. L. Schneider. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1985, p. 540–563.
 117. Masoro, E. J., and R. J. M. McCarter. Dietary restriction as a probe of mechanisms of senescence. Ann. Rev. Gerontol. Geriatr. 10: 183–197, 1990.
 118. Masoro, E. J., and R. McCarter. Aging as a consequence of fuel utilization. Aging 3: 117–128, 1991.
 119. Masoro, E. J., B. P. Yu and H. Bertrand. Action of food restriction in delaying the aging processes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 79: 4239–4241, 1982.
 120. McArthur, J. W., and W. H. T. Baillie. Metabolic activity and duration of life. II. Metabolic rates and their relation to longevity in Daphnia magna. J. Exp. Zool. 53: 243–286, 1929.
 121. McArthur, M. C., and R. S. Sohal. Relationship between metabolic rate, aging, lipid peroxidation and fluorescent age pigment in milkweed bug, Oncopeltus fasciatus (Hemiptera). J. Gerontol. 37: 268–274, 1982.
 122. McCarter, R., and J. McGee. Influence of nutrition and aging on the composition and function of rat skeletal muscle. J. Gerontol. 42: 432–441, 1987.
 123. McCarter, R. J., and J. R. McGee. Transient reduction of metabolic rate by food restriction. Am. J. Physiol. E175–E179, 1989.
 124. McCarter, R. J., and J. Palmer. Energy metabolism and aging: a lifelong study in Fischer 344 rats. Am. J. Physiol. 263: E448–E452, 1992.
 125. McCarter, R., J. T. Herlihy, and J. M. McGee. Metabolic rate and aging: effects of food restriction and thyroid hormone on minimal oxygen consumption in rats. Aging 1: 71–76, 1989.
 126. McCarter, R., E. J. Masoro, and B. P. Yu. Does food restriction retard aging by reducing the metabolic rate? Am. J. Physiol. 248: E488–E490, 1985.
 127. McDonald, R. B., C. Day, K. Carlson, J. S. Stern, and B. A. Horwitz. Effect of age and gender on thermoregulation. Am. J. Physiol. 257: R700–R704, 1989b.
 128. McDonald, R. B., B. A. Horwitz, J. S. Hamilton, and J. S. Stern. Cold‐ and norepinephrine‐induced thermogenesis in younger and older Fischer 344 rats. Am. J. Physiol. 254: R457–R462, 1988a.
 129. McDonald, R. B., B. A. Horwitz, and J. S. Stern. Cold‐induced thermoregulation in younger and older Fischer 344 rats following exercise training. Am. J. Physiol. 254: R908–R916, 1988b.
 130. McDonald, R. B., J. S. Stern, and B. A. Horwitz. Thermogenic responses of younger and older rats to cold exposure: comparison of two strains. J. Gerontol. 44: B37–B42, 1989a.
 131. McGandy, R. B., C. H. Barrows, Jr., A. Spania, A. Meredith, J. L. Stone, and A. H. Norris. Nutrient intake and energy expenditure in men of different ages. J. Gerontol. 21: 581–587, 1966.
 132. Mitchell, H. H. Comparative Nutrition of Man and Domestic Animals. New York: Academic Press, 1962, 90 p.
 133. Mooradian, A. D., L. Deebaj, and N. C. W. Wong. Age‐related alterations in the response of hepatic lipogenic enzymes to altered thyroid states in the rat. J. Endocrinol. 128: 79–84, 1991.
 134. Morgan, J. B., and D. A. York. Thermic effect of feeding in relation to energy balance in elderly men. Ann. Nutr. Metab. 27: 71–77, 1983.
 135. Moser, H. W. Peroxisomal diseases. Adv. Pediatr. 36: 1–38, 1989.
 136. Nadel, E. R., K. B. Pandolf, M. F. Roberts, and J. A. J. Stolwijk. Mechanisms of thermal acclimation to exercise and heat. J. Appl. Physiol. 37: 515–520, 1974.
 137. Newell, R. C. The effect of temperature fluctuations on the metabolism of intertidal invertebrates. Am. Zool. 9: 293–307, 1969.
 138. Norman, D. C., D. Grahn, and T. T. Yoshikawa. Fever and aging. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 33: 859–863, 1985.
 139. Norman, D. C., R. H. Yamamura, and T. T. Yoshikawa. Fever response in old and young mice after injection of interleukin‐1. J. Gerontol. 43: M80–M85, 1988.
 140. Oberley, L. W. Free radicals and diabetes. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 5: 113–124, 1988.
 141. Odio, M. R., and A. Brodish. Effects of age on metabolic responses to acute and chronic stress. Am. J. Physiol. 254: E617–E624, 1988.
 142. Olsen, T., P. Lawberg, and J. Weeke. LOW serum tri‐iodothyronine and high serum reverse‐tri‐iodothyronine in old age: an effect of disease not age. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 47: 1111–1115, 1978.
 143. Orr, W., and R. S. Sohal. The effects of catalase gene expression on lifespan and resistance to oxidative stress in transgenic. Drosophila melanogaster. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 297: 35–41, 1992.
 144. Osiewacz, H. D., and H. Hermanns. The role of mitochondrial DNA rearrangements in aging and human diseases. Aging 4: 273–286, 1992.
 145. Ou, L. C., and S. M. Tenney. Properties of mitochondria from hearts of cattle acclimatized to high altitude. Respir. Physiol. 8: 151–159, 1970.
 146. Owen, O. E., E. Karle, and R. S. Owen. A reappraisal of the caloric requirements of healthy women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 44: 1–19, 1986.
 147. Pearce, M. E., D. A. Cunningham, A. P. Donner, P. A. Rechnitzer, G. M. Fullerton, and J. H. Howard. Energy cost of treadmill and floor walking at self‐selected paces. J. Appl. Physiol. 52: 115–119, 1983.
 148. Pearl, R. The Rate of Living. New York: Alfred Knopf, 1928, 185 p.
 149. Peng, M., Y. Peng, and F. Chen. Age‐dependent changes in the oxygen consumption of the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, hippocampus and amygdaloid in rats. J. Gerontol. 32: 517–522, 1977.
 150. Perlmutter, M., and D. S. Riggs. Thyroid collection of radioactive iodide and serum protein‐bound iodine concentration in senescence, in hypothyroidism and in hypopituitarism. J. Clin. Endocrinol. 9: 430–439, 1949.
 151. Pi‐Sunyer, F. X., Discussion. In: Energy Metabolism, edited by J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker. New York: Raven Press, 1992, p. 60.
 152. Pi‐Sunyer, F. X., and K. R. Segal. Relationship of diet and exercise. In: Energy Metabolism: Tissue Determinants and Cellular Corollaries, edited by J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker. New York: Raven Press, 1992, p. 187–209.
 153. Poehlman, E., and E. S. Horton. Regulation of energy expenditure in aging humans. Ann. Rev. Nutr. 10: 255–275, 1990.
 154. Poehlman, E. T., E. M. Berke, J. R. Joseph, A. W. Gardener, S. M. Katzman‐Rooks, and M. I. Goran. Influence of aerobic capacity, body composition and thyroid hormones on the age‐related decline in resting metabolic rate. Metabolism 41: 915–921, 1992.
 155. Poehlman, E. T., T. McAuliffe, and E. Danforth, Jr.. Effects of age and level of physical activity on plasma norepinephrine kinetics. Am. J. Physiol. 258: E256–E262, 1990.
 156. Ravussin, E., and C. Bogardus. Relationship of genetics, age and physical fitness to daily energy expenditure. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 49: 968–975, 1989.
 157. Ravussin, E., S. Lillioja, T. E. Anderson, L. Christin, and C. Bogardus. Determinants of 24‐hour energy expenditure in man. J. Clin. Invest. 78: 1568–1578, 1986.
 158. Ross, M. H., and J. O. Ely. Age‐related changes in respiration of sliced liver of the rat. J. Franklin Inst. 258: 63–66, 1954.
 159. Rothwell, N. Hypothalamus and Thermogenesis in Energy Metabolism: Tissue Determinants and Cellular Corollaries, edited by J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker. New York: Raven Press, 1992, p. 229–246.
 160. Rowe, J. W., and B. R. Troen. Sympathetic nervous system and aging in man. Endocr. Rev. 1: 167–179, 1980.
 161. Rowe, J. W., R. Andres, J. D. Tobin, A. H. Norris, and N. W. Shock. The effect of age on creatinine clearance in men: a cross‐sectional and longitudinal study. J. Gerontol. 31: 155–163, 1976.
 162. Rubner, M. Über den Einfluss der Korpergrosse auf Stoff‐ und Kraft‐wechsel. Zh. Obshch. Biol. 19: 535–562, 1883.
 163. Rubner, M. Das problem der Lebensdauer und seine Beziehungen zum Wachstum under Ehrnarung. Munich: Oldenburg 1908, 204 p.
 164. Rumsey, W. L., Z. V. Kendrick, and J. W. Starnes. Bioenergetics in the aging Fischer 344 rat: effects of exercise and food restriction. Exp. Gerontol. 22: 271, 1987.
 165. Saad, M. F., S. A. Alger, F. Zurlo, J. B. Young, C. Bogardus, and E. Ravussin. Ethnic differences in the sympathetically‐mediated energy expenditure. Am. J. Physiol. 261: E789–E794, 1991.
 166. Sacher, G. A., Life table modification and life prolongation. In: Handbook of the Biology of Aging, edited by C. Finch and L. Hayflick. New York: Van Nootrand Reinhold, 1977, p. 582–638.
 167. Sagai, M., and T. Ishinose. Age‐related changes in lipid peroxidation as measured by ethane, ethylene, butane and pentane in respired gases of rats. Life Sci. 27: 731–738, 1980.
 168. Sagawa, S., K. Shiraki, M. K. Yousef, and K. Miki. Sweating and cardiovascular responses of aged men to heat exposure. J. Gerontol. 43: M1–M8, 1988.
 169. Sarrus, F., and J. F. Rameaux. Rapport sur un memoire adresse à l'Academic royale de medicine. Bull. Acad. Natl. Med. (Paris) 3: 1094–1100, 1838.
 170. Scarpace, P. J., B. S. Bender, and S. E. Borst. The febrile response to E. coli peritonitis is impaired in senescent rats. Gerontologist 30: 215A, 1990.
 171. Scarpace, P. J., M. Matheny, B. S. Bender, and S. E. Borst. Impaired febrile response with age: role of thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 200: 353–358, 1992a.
 172. Scarpace, P. J., M. Matheny, and S. E. Borst. Thermogenesis and GDP binding with age in response to the novel agonist CGP‐12177A. Am. J. Physiol. 262: E185–E190, 1992b.
 173. Scarpace, P. J., A. D. Mooradian, and J. E. Morley. Age‐associated decrease in beta‐adrenergic receptors and adenylate cyclase activity in rat brown adipose tissue. J. Gerontol. 43: B65–B70, 1988.
 174. Schutz, Y., J. P. Flatt, and E. Jequier. Failure of dietary fat intake to promote fat oxidation: a factor favoring the development of obesity. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 50: 307–314, 1989.
 175. Schwartz, R. S., L. F. Jaeger, and R. C. Veith. The importance of body composition to the increase in plasma norepinephrine appearance rate in elderly men. J. Gerontol. 42: 546–551, 1987.
 176. Schwartz, R. S., L. F. Jaeger, and R. Veith. The thermic effect of feeding in older men: the importance of the sympathetic nervous system. Metabolism 39: 733–737, 1990.
 177. Scott, A. R., I. A. Macdonald, T. Bennet, and R. B. Tattersal. Abnormal thermoregulation in diabetic autonomic neuropathy. Diabetes 37: 961–968, 1988.
 178. Seto, N. O. L., S. Hayashi, and G. M. Tener. Overexpression of Cu‐Zn superoxide dismutase in Drosophila does not affect lifespan. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87: 4270–4274, 1990.
 179. Siesjo, B. K., and B. Nilsson. A method of determining blood flow and oxygen consumption in the rat brain. Acta Physiol. Scand. 96: 72–82, 1976.
 180. Skinner, J. S. Age and Performance in Limiting Factors of Physical Performance, edited by J. Keul. Stuttgart: Georg Thieme, 1973, p. 271–282.
 181. Snyder, W. S., M. J. Cook, E. S. Nasset, L. R. Karhausen, G. P. Howells, and I. H. Tipton. Report of the task group on reference man. International Commission on Radiological Protection, No. 23. Oxford: Pergammon Press, 1975, p. 1–40.
 182. Sohal, R. S., The rate of living theory: a contemporary interpretation. In: Insect Aging, edited by K. G. Collatz and R. S. Sohal. Berlin: Springer‐Verlag, 1986, p. 23–44.
 183. Sohal, R. S. The free radical hypothesis of aging. An appraisal of the current status. Aging Clin. Exp. Res. 5: 3–17, 1993.
 184. Sohal, R. S., and R. G. Allen. Relationship between oxygen metabolism, aging and development. Adv. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 2: 117–160, 1986.
 185. Sohal, R. S., A. Muller, B. Koletzko, and H. Sies. Effect of age and ambient temperature on n‐pentane production in adult housefly Musca domestica. Mech. Ageing Dev. 29: 317–326, 1985.
 186. Stadtman, E. R. Protein oxidation and aging. Science 257: 1220–1224, 1992.
 187. Stadtman, E., and C. N. Oliver. Metal‐catalyzed oxidation of proteins: physiological consequences. J. Biol. Chem. 266: 2005–2008, 1991.
 188. Steinberg, D. Antioxidants and atherosclerosis. Circulation 84: 1420–1425, 1991.
 189. Steinhaus, A. H. Studies in the physiology of exercise. I. Exercise and basal metabolism in dogs. Am. J. Physiol. 88: 658–677, 1928.
 190. Sun, Y. Free radicals, antioxidant enzymes, and carcinogenesis. Free Rad. Biol. Med. 8: 583–599, 1990.
 191. Tai, M. M., P. Castillo, and F. X. Pi‐Sunyer. Meal size and frequency: effect on the thermic effect of food. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 54: 783–787, 1991.
 192. Talan, M. Body temperature of C57BL/6J mice with age. Exp. Gerontol. 19: 25–29, 1984.
 193. Talan, M. I., and D. K. Ingram. Effects of voluntary and forced exercise on thermoregulation and survival in aged C57BL/6J mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 36: 269–279, 1986.
 194. Tankersley, C. G., J. Smolander, W. L. Kenney, and S. M. Fortney. Sweating and skin blood flow during exercise: effects of age and maximum oxygen uptake. J. Appl. Physiol. 71: 236–242, 1991.
 195. Tatelman, H. M., and M. I. Talan. Metabolic heat production during repeated cold stress in adult and aged male C57BL/6J mice. J. Gerontol. 45: B215–B219, 1990.
 196. Terjung, R. L., and C. M. Tipton. Exercise training and oxygen consumption. Int. Z. Angew Physiol. 28: 269–272, 1970.
 197. Tremblay, A., E. Fontaine, and A. Nadeau. Contribution of post‐exercise increment in glucose storage to variations in glucose‐induced thermogenesis in endurance athletes. Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 63: 1165–1169, 1985.
 198. Trotter, M., G. F. Broman, and R. R. Peterson. Density of bones of white and negro skeletons. J. Bone Joint Surg. 42A: 50–58, 1960.
 199. Tzankoff, S. P., and A. H. Norris. Effect of muscle mass decrease on age‐related BMR changes. J. Appl. Physiol. 43: 1001–1006, 1977.
 200. Tzankoff, S. P. and A. H. Norris. Longitudinal changes in basal metabolism in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 45: 536–539, 1978.
 201. Vaughan, L., F. Zurlo, and E. Ravussin. Aging and energy expenditure. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53: 821–825, 1991.
 202. Vega, J. A., A. Ricci, and F. Amenta. Age‐dependent changes of the sympathetic innervation of the rat kidney. Mech. Ageing Dev. 54: 185–196, 1990.
 203. Venkatachalam, P. Basal metabolism in nutritional edema. Metabolism 2: 128–141, 1954.
 204. von Bertalanffy, L., and W. J. Pirozynski. Tissue respiration and body size. Science 113: 559–600, 1951.
 205. Vonlanthen, M., R. J. McCarter, and D. Casto. Metabolic effects of aminophylline in weanling rats. Am. J. Physiol. 258: R193–R197, 1990.
 206. Wartoesky, L., and K. D. Burman. Alterations in thyroid function in patients with systemic illness: the “euthyroid sick syndrome.” Endocr. Rev. 3: 164–217, 1982.
 207. Webb, P. Energy expenditure and fat free mass in men and women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 34: 1816–1826, 1981.
 208. Weindruch, R., and R. L. Walford. The Retardation of Aging and Disease by Dietary Restriction. Springfield, IL: A. H. Thomas, 1988.
 209. Welle, S., and K. S. Nair. Relationship of resting metabolic rate to body composition and protein turnover. Am. J. Physiol. 258: E990–E998, 1990.
 210. Williams, V. R., W. L. Mattice, and H. B. Williams. Basic Physical Chemistry for the Life Sciences. San Francisco: Freeman and Co., 1978, p. 323–330.
 211. Wolfe, R. R., The role of triglyceride‐fatty acid cycling and glucose cycling in thermogenesis and amplification of net substrate flux in human subjects. In: Hormones and Nutrition in Obesity and Cachexia, edited by J. Muller, E. Danforth, A. G. Burger, and U. Siedentopp. Berlin: Springer‐Verlag, 1990, p. 20–40.
 212. Young, V. R. Energy requirements in the elderly. Nutr. Rev. 50: 95–101, 1992.
 213. Youngman, L. D., J. Y. Park, and B. N. Ames. Protein oxidation associated with aging is reduced by dietary restriction on protein or calories. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89: 9112–9116, 1992.
 214. Yu, B. P., E. J. Masoro, and C. A. McMahan. Nutritional influences on aging of Fischer 344 rats: I. Physical, metabolic, and longevity characteristics. J. Gerontol. 40: 657–670, 1985.
 215. Yu, B. P., E. J. Masoro, I. Murata, H. B. Bertrand, and F. T. Lynd. Lifespan study of SPF Fischer 344 male rats fed ad libitum or restricted diets: longevity, growth, lean body mass and disease. J. Gerontol. 37: 130–141, 1982.
 216. Yu, B. P., G. Wong, H. Lee, H. A. Bertrand, and E. J. Masoro. Age changes in hepatic metabolic characteristics and their modulation by dietary manipulation. Mech. Ageing Dev. 24: 67–81, 1984.
 217. Zurlo, F., K. Larson, C. Bogardus, and E. Ravussin. Skeletal muscle metabolism is a major determinant of resting energy expenditure. J. Clin. Invest. 86: 1423–1427, 1990.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

How to Cite

Roger J. M. McCarter. Energy Utilization. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 28: Handbook of Physiology, Aging: 95-118. First published in print 1995. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp110106