Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library

Immune System

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



Abstract

The sections in this article are:

1 T Lymphocyte Subsets
1.1 Helper (CD4) and Cytotoxic (CD8) T Cell Subsets
1.2 Naive and Memory T Cell Subsets
1.3 Other T Cell Subsets
2 T Lymphocyte Function
2.1 IL‐2 Production
2.2 Response to IL‐2
2.3 Production of Other Lymphokines
2.4 T Cell Activation
2.5 Clonal Diversify. A “Mosaic” Model for T Cell Senescence
3 T Cell Development
3.1 Thymic Involution
3.2 Prothymocyles
4 B Lymphocytes
4.1 B Cell Number and Subsets
4.2 Proliferation and Antibody Production
4.3 Antibodies: Levels, Repertoire, and Autoreactivity
5 B Cell Development
6 Accessory Cells and Their Cytokines
6.1 Dendritic Cells and Langerhans Cells
6.2 Cytokine Production
7 Natural Cytotoxicity
8 Restoration of Immune Function
9 Immunity, Disease, and Longevity
10 Summary: Immune Models for Aging Research
References
 1. Abb, J., H. Abb, and F. Deinhardt. Age‐related decline of human interferon alpha and interferon gamma production. Blut 48: 285–289, 1984.
 2. Abraham, C., Y. Tal, and H. Gershon. Reduced in vitro response to concanavalin A and lipopolysaccharide in senescent mice: a function of reduced number of responding cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 7: 301–304, 1977.
 3. Akbar, A. N., M. Salmon, and G. Janossy. The synergy between naive and memory T cells during activation. Immunol. Today 12: 184–188, 1991.
 4. Albright, J. W., and J. F. Albright. Age‐associated impairment of murine natural killer activity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80: 6371–6375, 1983.
 5. Albright, J. W., K. L. Holmes, and J. F. Albright. Fluctuations in subsets of splenocytes and isotypes of Ig in young adult and aged mice resulting from Trypanosoma musculi infections. J. Immunol. 144: 3970–3979, 1990.
 6. Alkon, D. L., and H. Rasmussen. A spatial‐temporal model of cell activation. Science 239: 998–1005, 1988.
 7. Al‐Rayes, H., W. Pachas, N. Mirza, D. J. Ahern, R. S. Geha, and D. Vercelli. IgE regulation and lymphokine patterns in aging humans. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 90: 630–636, 1992.
 8. Andersson, J., A. Coutinho, and F. Melchers. Frequencies of mitogen‐reactive B cells in the mouse. I. Distribution in different lymphoid organs from different inbred strains of mice at different ages. J. Exp. Med. 145: 1511–1530, 1977.
 9. Antel, J. P., J. F. D. E. Oger, D. P. Richman, H. H. Huo, and B. G. W. Arnason. Reduced T‐lymphocyte cell reactivity as a function of human aging. Cell. Immunol. 54: 184–192, 1980.
 10. Antonaci, S., C. Tortorella, A. Polignano, A. Ottolenghi, E. Jirillo, and L. Bonomo. Modulating effects on CD25 and CD71 antigen expression by lectin‐stimulated T lymphocytes in the elderly. Immunopharmacol. Immunotoxicol. 13: 87–100, 1991.
 11. Araneo, B. A., T. Dowell, M. Diegel, and R. A. Daynes. Dihydrotestosterone exerts a depressive influence on the production of interleukin‐4 (IL‐4), IL‐5, and γ‐interferon, but not IL‐2 by activated murine T cells. Blood 78: 688–699, 1991.
 12. Armanini, D., I. Karbowiak, M. Scali, E. Orlandini, V. Zampollo, and G. Vittadello. Corticosteroid receptors and lymphocyte subsets in mononuclear leukocytes in aging. Am. J. Physiol. 262 (Endocrinol. Metab. 25): E464–E466, 1992.
 13. Astle, C. M., and D. E. Harrison. Effects of marrow donor and recipient age on immune responses. J. Immunol. 132: 673–677, 1984.
 14. Averill, L. E., and N. S. Wolf. The decline in murine splenic PHA and LPS responsiveness with age is primarily due to an intrinsic mechanism. J. Immunol. 134: 3859–3863, 1985.
 15. Bach, M. A. Lymphocyte‐mediated cytotoxicity: effects of ageing, adult thymectomy and thymic factor. J. Immunol. 119: 641–647, 1977.
 16. Bangs, L. A., I. E. Sanz, and J. M. Teale. Comparison of D, JH, and junctional diversity in the fetal, adult, and aged B cell repertoires. J. Immunol. 146: 1996–2004, 1991.
 17. Basch, R. S. Thymic repopulation after irradiation in aged mice. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 2: 229–235, 1990.
 18. Beckman, I., K. Dimopoulos, X. N. Xu, J. Bradley, P. Henschke, and M. Ahern. T cell activation in the elderly: evidence for specific deficiencies in T cell/accessory cell interactions. Mech. Ageing Dev. 51: 265–276, 1990.
 19. Bell, E. B., and S. M. Sparshott. Interconversion of CD45R subsets of CD4 T cells in vivo. Nature 348: 163–166, 1990.
 20. Bellinger, D. L., S. Y. Felten, T. J. Collier, and D. L. Felten. Noradrenergic sympathetic innervation of the spleen: IV. Morphometric analysis in adult and aged F344 rats. J. Neurosci. Res. 18: 55–63, 126–129, 1987.
 21. Bellinger, D. L., D. Lorton, S. Y. Felten, and D. L. Felten. Innervation of lymphoid organs and implications in development, aging, and autoimmunity. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 14: 329–344, 1992.
 22. Belsito, D. V., R. M. Derarkissian, G. J. Thorbecke, and R. L. Baer. Reversal by lymphokines of the age‐related hypo‐responsiveness to contact sensitization and reduced Ia expression on langerhans cells. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 279: S76–S80, 1987.
 23. Bender, B. S., F. J. Chrest, and W. H. Adler. Phenotypic expression of natural killer cell associated membrane antigens and cytolytic function of peripheral blood cells from different aged humans. J. Clin. Lab. Immunol. 21: 31–36, 1986.
 24. Bender, B. S., F. J. Chrest, J. A. Nagel, W. H. Adler, D. M. Bentley, and R. E. Morris. Peripheral blood CD8+ subsets in young and elderly adults: enumeration by two‐color immunofluorescence and flow cytometry T cell subsets required for protection against age‐dependent polioencephalomyelitis of C58 mice. J. Immunol. 128: 530–534, 1982.
 25. Bender, B. S., M. P. Johnson, and P. A. Small. Influenza in senescent mice: impaired cytotoxic T‐lymphocyte activity is correlated with prolonged infection. Immunology 72: 514–519, 1991.
 26. Bender, B. S., J. E. Nagel, W. H. Adler, and R. Andres. Absolute peripheral blood lymphocyte count and subsequent mortality of elderly men. The Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 34: 649–654, 1986.
 27. Ben‐Nun, A., Y. Ron, and I. R. Cohen. Spontaneous remission of autoimmune encephalomyelitis is inhibited by splenectomy, thymectomy or ageing. Nature 288: 389–390, 1980.
 28. Bentley, D. M., and R. E. Morris. T cell subsets required for protection against age‐dependent polioencephalomyelitis of C58 mice. J. Immunol. 128: 530–534, 1982.
 29. Blair, P. B., M. O. Staskawicz, and J. S. Sam. Suppression of natural killer cell activity in young and old mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 40: 57–70, 1987.
 30. Boersma, W. J. A., F. A. Steinmeier, and J. J. Haaijman. Age‐related changes in the relative numbers of Thy‐1 and Lyt‐2‐bearing peripheral blood lymphocytes in mice: a longitudinal approach. Cell. Immunol. 93: 417–430, 1985.
 31. Brill, S., T. Kukulansky, E. Tal, L. Abel, Y. Polgin, C. Dassa, and A. Globerson. Individual changes in T lymphocyte parameters of old human subjects. Mech. Ageing Dev. 40: 71–79, 1987.
 32. Bruley‐Rosset, M. and I. Vergnon. Interleukin‐1 synthesis and activity in aged mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 24: 247–264, 1984.
 33. Buckler, A., H. Vie, G. Sonenshein, and R. A. Miller. Defective T lymphocytes in old mice: diminished production of mature c‐myc mRNA after mitogen exposure not attributable to alterations in transcription or RNA stability. J. Immunol. 140: 2442–2446, 1988.
 34. Budd, R. C., J. C. Cerottini, C. Horvath, C. Bron, T. Pedrazzini, R. C. Howe, and H. R. Macdonald. Distinction of virgin and memory T lymphocytes. Stable acquisition of the Pgp‐1 glycoprotein concomitant with antigenic stimulation. J. Immunol. 138: 3120–3129, 1987.
 35. Burton, G. F., M. H. Kosco, A. K. Szakal, and J. G. Tew. Iccosomes and the secondary antibody response. Immunology 73: 271–276, 1991.
 36. Cai, N. S., D. D. Li, H. T. Cheung, and A. Richardson. The expression of granulocyte/macrophage colony‐stimulating factor in activated mouse lymphocytes declines with age. Cell Immunol. 130: 311–319, 1990.
 37. Callard, R. E., and A. Basten. Immune function in aged mice. IV. Loss of T cell and B cell function in thymus‐dependent antibody responses. Eur. J. Immunol. 8: 552–558, 1978.
 38. Carafoli, E. Intracellular calcium homeostasis. Annu. Rev. Biochem. 56: 395–433, 1987.
 39. Ceuppens, J. L., and J. S. Goodwin. Regulation of immunoglobulin production in pokeweed mitogen‐stimulated cultures of lymphocytes from young and old adults. J. Immunol. 128: 2429–2434, 1982.
 40. Chandra, R. K. Effect of vitamin and trace‐element supplementation on immune responses and infection in elderly subjects. Lancet 340: 1124–1127, 1992.
 41. Chang, M., T. Makinodan, W. J. Peterson, and B. L. Strehler. Role of T cells and adherent cells in age‐related decline in murine interleukin 2 production. J. Immunol. 129: 2426–2430, 1982.
 42. Chang, M. P., D. C. Norman, and T. Makinodan. Immunotoxicity of alcohol in young and old mice. I. In vitro suppressive effects of ethanol on the activities of T and B immune cells of aging mice. Alcohol Clin. Exp. Res. 14: 210–215, 1990.
 43. Chang, M. P., M. Utsuyama, K. Hirokawa, and T. Makinodan. Decline in the production of interleukin‐3 with age in mice. Cell Immunol. 115: 1–12, 1988.
 44. Chatelain, R., K. Varkila, and R. L. Coffman. IL‐4 induces a Th2 response in Leishmania major‐infected mice. J. Immunol. 148: 1182–1187, 1992.
 45. Chin, K. V., K. Ueda, I. Pastam, and M. M. Gottesman. Modulation of activity of the promoter of the human MDR1 gene by Ras and p53. Science 255: 459–462, 1992.
 46. Choi, K. L., and D. N. Sauder. Epidermal Langerhans cell density and contact sensitivity in young and aged BALB/c mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 39: 69–79, 1987.
 47. Chopra, R. K., N. J. Holbrook, D. C. Powers, M. T. Mccoy, W. H. Adler, and J. E. Nagel. Interleukin 2, interleukin 2 receptor, and interferon‐gamma synthesis and mRNA expression in phorbol myristate acetate and calcium ionophore A23187‐stimulated T cells from elderly humans. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 53: 297–308, 1989.
 48. Cillari, E., S. Milano, M. Dieli, F. Arcoleo, R. Perego, F. Leoni, G. Gromo, A. Severn, and F. Y. Liew. Thymopentin reduces the susceptibility of aged mice to cutaneous leishmaniasis by modulating CD4 T cell subsets. Immunology 16: 362–366, 1992.
 49. Cook, J. M., N. Gualde, L. Hessel, M. Mounier, J. P. Michel, F. Denis, and M. H. Ratinaud. Alterations in the human immune response to the hepatitis B vaccine among the elderly. Cell. Immunol. 109: 89–96, 1987.
 50. Covelli, V., D. Mouton, V. Di Majo, Y. Bouthillier, C. Bangrazi, J. C. Mevel, S. Rebessi, G. Doria, and G. Biozzi. Inheritance of immune responsiveness, life span, and disease incidence in interline crosses of mice selected for high or low multispecific antibody production. J. Immunol. 142: 1224–1234, 1989.
 51. Crabtree, G. R. Contigent genetic regulatory events in T lymphocyte activation. Science 243: 355–361, 1989.
 52. Cross, R. J., J. L. Campbell, W. R. Markesbery, and T. L. Roszman. Transplantation of pituitary grafts fail to restore immune function and to reconstitute the thymus glands of aged mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 56: 11–22, 1990.
 53. Damjanovich, S., and C. Pieri. Electroimmunology: membrane potential, ion‐channel activities, and stimulatory signal transduction in human T lymphocytes from young and elderly. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 621: 29–39, 1991.
 54. Davila, D. R., and K. W. Kelley. Sex differences in lectin‐induced interleukin‐2 synthesis in aging rats. Mech. Ageing Dev. 44: 231–240, 1988.
 55. Daynes, R. A., and B. A. Araneo. Prevention and reversal of some age‐associated changes in immunologic responses by supplemental dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate therapy. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 3: 135–154, 1992.
 56. Daynes, R. A., B. A. Araneo, W. B. Ershler, C. Maloney, G.‐Z. Li, and S.‐Y. Ryu. Altered regulation of interleukin‐6 production with normal aging: possible linkage to the age‐associated decline in dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfated derivative. J. Immunol, (in press), 1993.
 57. Deguchi, Y., S. Negoro, H. Hara, S. Nishio, and S. Kishimoto. Age‐related changes of proliferative response, kinetics of expression of protooncogenes after the mitogenic stimulation and methylation level of the protooncogene in purified human lymphocyte subsets. Mech. Ageing Dev. 44: 153–168, 1988.
 58. Delfraissy, J. F., P. Galanaud, C. Wallon, J. F. Balavoine, and J. Dormont. Abolished in vitro antibody response in elderly: exclusive involvement of prostaglandin‐induced T suppressor cells. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 24: 377–385, 1982.
 59. De Paoli, P., S. Battistin, and G. F. Santini. Age‐related changes in human lymphocyte subsets: progressive reduction of the CD4 CD45R (suppressor inducer) population. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 48: 290–296, 1988.
 60. Ebersole, J. L., M. J. Steffen, and J. Pappo. Secretory immune responses in ageing rats. II. Phenotype distribution of lymphocytes in secretory and lymphoid tissues. Immunology 64: 289–294, 1988.
 61. Effros, R. B., and R. L. Walford. The immune response of aged mice to influenza: diminished T‐cell proliferation, interleukin 2 production and cytotoxicity. Cell. Immunol. 81: 298–305, 1983.
 62. Effros, R. B., and R. L. Walford. The effect of age on the antigen‐presenting mechanism in limiting dilution precursor cell frequency analysis. Cell. Immunol. 88: 531–539, 1984.
 63. Effros, R. B., K. Svoboda, and R. L. Walford. Influence of age and caloric restriction on macrophage IL‐6 and TNF production. Lymphokine Cytokine Res. 10: 347–351, 1991.
 64. Effros, R. B., R. L. Walford, R. Weindruch, and C. Mitcheltree. Influences of dietary restriction on immunity to influenza in aged mice. J. Gerontol. Biol. Sci. 46: B142–B147, 1991.
 65. El Demellawy, M., and R. El Ridi. Age‐associated decrease in proportion and antigen expression of CD8+/CD4+ thymocytes in BALB/c mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 62: 307–318, 1992.
 66. Eren, R., D. Zharhary, L. Abel, and A. Globerson. Age‐related changes in the capacity of bone marrow cells to differentiate in thymic organ cultures. Cell. Immunol. 112: 449–455, 1988.
 67. Ernst, D. N., M. V. Hobbs, B. E. Torbett, A. L. Glasebrook, M. A. Rehse, K. Bottomly, K. Hayakawa, R. R. Hardy, and W. O. Weigle. Differences in the expression profiles of CD45RB, Pgp‐1, and 3G11 membrane antigens and in the patterns of lymphokine secretion by splenic CD4+ T cells from young and aged mice. J. Immunol. 145: 1295–1302, 1990.
 68. Ernst, D. N., W. O. Weigle, D. N. McQuitty, A. L. Rothermel, and M. H. Hobbs. Stimulation of murine T cell subsets with anti‐CD3 antibody. Age‐related defects in the expression of early activation molecules. J. Immunol. 142: 1413–1421, 1989.
 69. Ershler, W. B. The influence of an aging immune system on cancer incidence and progression. J. Gerontol. Biol. Sci. 48: B3–B7, 1993.
 70. Felten, S. Y., D. L. Bellinger, T. J. Collier, P. D. Coleman, and D. L. Felten. Decreased sympathetic innervation of spleen in aged Fischer 344 rats. Neurobiol. Aging 8: 159–165, 1987.
 71. Fields, R. A., H. Toubbeh, R. P. Searles, and A. D. Bank‐hurst. The prevalence of anticardiolipin antibodies in a healthy elderly population and its association with antinuclear antibodies. J. Rheumatol. 16: 623–625, 1989.
 72. Flood, P. M., J. L. Urban, M. L. Kripke, and H. Schreiber. Loss of tumor‐specific and idiotype‐specific immunity with age. J. Exp. Med. 154: 275–290, 1981.
 73. Flurkey, K. and D. E. Harrison. Use of genetic models to investigate the hypophyseal regulation of senescence. In: Genetic Effects on Aging II, edited by D. E. Harrison. Caldwell, NJ: Telford Press, p. 437.
 74. Flurkey, K., R. A. Miller, and D. E. Harrison. Cellular determinants of age‐related decrements in the T‐cell mitogen response of B6CBAF1 mice. J. Gerontol. 47: B115–B120, 1992.
 75. Flurkey, K., M. Stadecker, and R. A. Miller. Memory T lymphocyte hyporesponsiveness to non‐cognate stimuli: a key factor in age‐related immunodeficiency. Eur. J. Immunol. 22: 931–935, 1992.
 76. Fong, T. C., and T. Makinodan. In situ hybridization analysis of the age‐associated decline in IL‐2 mRNA expressing murine T cells. Cell. Immunol. 118: 199–207, 1989.
 77. Foster, K. D., C. A. Conn, and M. J. Kluger. Fever, tumor necrosis factor, and interleukin‐6 in young, mature, and aged Fischer 344 rats. Am. J. Physiol. 262: R211–R215, 1992.
 78. Francus, T., Y. W. Chen, L. Staiano‐Coico, and J. M. Hefton. Effect of age on the capacity of the bone marrow and the spleen cells to generate B lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 137: 2411–2417, 1986.
 79. Franklin, R. A., S. Arkins, and K. W. Kelley. The proliferative response of rat T cells to calcium ionophores increases with age. Cell Immunol. 130: 416–428, 1990.
 80. Frasca, D., L. Adorini, and G. Doria. Enhanced frequency of mitogen‐responsive T cell precursors in old mice injected with thymosin alpha‐1. Eur. J. Immunol. 17: 727–730, 1987.
 81. Frasca, D., D. Boraschi, S. Baschieri, P. Bossu, A. Tagliabue, L. Adorini, and G. Doria. In vivo restoration of T cell functions by human IL‐1 beta or its 163–171 nonapeptide in immunodepressed mice. J. Immunol. 141: 2651–2655, 1988.
 82. Freedman, M. H., M. C. Raff, and B. Gomperts. Induction of increased calcium uptake in mouse T lymphocytes by concanavalin A and its modulation by cyclic nucleotides. Nature 255: 378–382, 1975.
 83. Froelich, C. J., J. S. Burkett, S. Guiffaut, R. Kingsland, and D. Brauner. Phytohemagglutinin induced proliferation by aged lymphocytes: reduced expression of high affinity interleukin‐2 receptors and interleukin‐2 secretion. Life Sci. 43: 1583–1590, 1988.
 84. Fulop, T., JR., M. Utsuyama, and K. Hirokawa. Determination of interleukin 2 receptor number of con A stimulated human lymphocytes with aging. J. Clin. Lab. Immunol. 34: 31–36, 1991.
 85. Gahring, L. C., and W. O. Weigle. The effect of aging on the induction of humoral and cellular immunity and tolerance in two long‐lived mouse strains. Cell Immunol. 128: 142–151, 1990.
 86. Gamble, D. A., R. Schwab, M. E. Weksler, and P. Szabo. Decreased steady state c‐myc mRNA in activated T cell cultures from old humans is caused by a smaller proportion of T cells that transcribe the c‐myc gene. J. Immunol. 144: 3569–3573, 1990.
 87. Gauchat, J. F., A. L. Deweck, and B. M. Stadler. Decreased cytokine mRNA levels in the elderly. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 1: 191–204, 1988.
 88. Gelfand, E. W., R. T. Cheung, G. B. Mills, and S. Grin‐stein. Uptake of extracellular Ca2+ and not recruitment from internal stores is essential for T lymphocyte proliferation. Eur. J. Immunol. 18: 917–922, 1988.
 89. Gilchrest, B. A., G. F. Murphy, and N. A. Soter. Effect of chronologic aging and ultraviolet irradiation on Langerhans cells in human epidermis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 79: 85–88, 1982.
 90. Gillis, S., R. Kozak, M. Durante, and M. E. Weksler. Immunological studies of aging. Decreased production of and response to T cell growth factor by lymphocytes from aged humans. J. Clin. Invest. 67: 937–942, 1981.
 91. Gilman, S. C., J. S. Rosenberg, and J. D. Feldman. T lymphocytes of young and aged rats. II. Functional defects and the role of interleukin‐2. J. Immunol. 128: 644–650, 1982.
 92. Gilman‐Sachs, A., Y. B. Kim, M. Pollard, and D. L. Snyder. Influence of aging, environmental antigens, and dietary restriction on expression of lymphocyte subsets in germ‐free and conventional Lobund‐Wistar rats. J. Gerontol. 46: B101–B106, 1991.
 93. Goidl, E. A., J. B. Innes, and M. E. Weksler. Immunological studies of aging. II. Loss of IgG and high avidity plaque‐forming cells and increased suppressor cell activity in aging mice. J. Exp. Med. 144: 1037–1048, 1976.
 94. Goidl, E. A., P. W. Stashak, S. J. M. McEvoy, and J. R. Hiernaux. Age‐related changes in serum immunoglobulin isotypes and isotype sub‐class levels among standard long‐lived and autoimmune and immunodeficient strains of mice. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 1: 227–236, 1988.
 95. Goidl, E. A., G. J. Thorbecke, M. E. Weksler, and G. W. Siskind. Production of auto‐anti‐idiotypic antibody during the normal immune response: changes in the auto‐anti‐idiotypic antibody response and the idiotype repertoire associated with aging. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 77: 6788–6792, 1980.
 96. Goldberg, T. H., D. G. Baker, and H. R. Schumacher. Interleukin‐1 and the immunobiology of aging. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 3: 81–89, 1991.
 97. Gonzalez‐Quintial, R., and A. N. Theofilopoulos. V beta gene repertoires in aging mice. J. Immunol. 149: 230–236, 1992.
 98. Goodman, S. A., and T. Makinodan. Effect of age on cell‐mediated immunity in long‐lived mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 19: 533–542, 1972.
 99. Goodwin, J. S., and R. P. Messner. Sensitivity of lymphocytes to prostaglandin E2 increases in subjects over age 70. J. Clin. Invest. 64: 434–439, 1979.
 100. Goodwin, J. S., R. P. Searles, and K. S. K. Tung. Immunological responses of a healthy elderly population. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 48: 403–410, 1982.
 101. Goso, C., D. Frasca, and G. Doria. Effect of synthetic thymic humoral factor (THF‐γ2) on T cell activities in immunodeficient ageing mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 87: 346–351, 1992.
 102. Gottesman, S. R. S. Changes in T‐cell‐mediated immunity with age: an update. Rev. Biol. Res. Aging 3: 79–111, 1987.
 103. Gottesman, S. R. S., R. L. Walford, and G. J. Thorbecke. Proliferative and cytotoxic immune functions in aging mice. III. Exogenous interleukin‐2 rich supernatant only partially restores alloreactivity in vitro. Mech. Ageing Dev. 31: 103–113, 1985.
 104. Goya, R. G., K. Brooks, and J. Meites. A comparison between hormone levels and T lymphocyte function in young and old rats. Mech. Ageing Dev. 61: 275–285, 1991.
 105. Gozes, Y., T. Umiel, and N. Trainin. Selective decline in differentiating capacity of immunohemopoietic stem cells with aging. Mech. Ageing Dev. 18: 251–259, 1982.
 106. Green‐Johnson, J. M., J. A. Haq, and M. R. Szewczuk. Effects of aging on the production of cytoplasmic interleukin‐4 and 5, and interferon‐γ by mucosal and systemic lymphocytes after activation with phytohemagglutinin. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 3: 43–57, 1991.
 107. Grinblat, J., K. Schauenstein, E. Saltz, N. Trainin, and A. Globerson. Regulatory effects of thymus humoral factor on T cell growth factor in aging mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 22: 209–218, 1983.
 108. Grossmann, A., J. A. Ledbetter, and P. S. Rabinovitch. Reduced proliferation in T lymphocytes in aged humans is predominantly in the CD8+ subset, and is unrelated to defects in transmembrane signaling which are predominantly in the CD4+ subset. Exp. Cell Res. 180: 367–382, 1989.
 109. Grossmann, A., L. Maggio‐Price, J. C. Jinneman, and P. S. Rabinovitch. Influence of aging on intracellular free calcium and proliferation of mouse T‐cell subsets from various lymphoid organs. Cell. Immunol. 135: 118–131, 1991.
 110. Grossmann, A., L. Maggio‐Price, J. C. Jinneman, N. S. Wolf, and P. S. Rabinovitch. The effect of long‐term caloric restriction on function of T‐cell subsets in old mice. Cell Immunol. 131: 191–204, 1990.
 111. Grynkiewicz, G., M. Poenie, and R. Y. Tsien. A new generation of Ca2+ indicators with greatly improved fluorescence properties. J. Biol. Chem. 260: 3440–3448, 1985.
 112. Guarcello, V., G. Triolo, M. Cioni, M. C. Morale, Z. Farinella, U. Scapagnini, and B. Marchetti. Phosphatidylserine counteracts physiological and pharmacological suppression of humoral immune response. Immunopharmacology 19: 185–195, 1990.
 113. Gupta, S. Membrane signal transduction in T cells in aging humans. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 568: 277–282, 1989.
 114. Haar, J. L., J. K. Taubenberger, L. Doane, and N. Kenyon. Enhanced in vitro bone marrow cell migration and T‐lymphocyte responses in aged mice given subcutaneous thymic epithelial cell grafts. Mech. Ageing Dev. 47: 207–219, 1989.
 115. Hallgren, H. M., N. Bergh, K. J. Rodysill, and J. J. O'Leary. Lymphocyte proliferative response to PHA and anti‐CD3/Ti monoclonal antibodies, T cell surface marker expression, and serum IL‐2 receptor levels as biomarkers of age and health. Mech. Ageing Dev. 43: 175–185, 1988.
 116. Hara, H., S. Negoro, S. Miyata, O. Saiki, K. Yoshizaki, T. Tanaka, T. Igarashi, and S. Kishimoto. Age‐associated changes in proliferative and differentiative response of human B cells and production of T cell‐derived factors regulating B cell function. Mech. Ageing Dev. 38: 245–258, 1987.
 117. Hara, H., T. Tanaka, S. Negoro, Y. Deguchi, S. Nishio, O. Saiki, and S. Kishimoto. Age‐related changes of expression of IL‐2 receptor subunits and kinetics of IL‐2 internalization in T cells after mitogenic stimulation. Mech. Ageing Dev. 45: 167–175, 1988.
 118. Harrison, D. E., Cell and tissue transplantation: a means of studying the aging process. In: Handbook of the Biology of Aging (2nd ed.), edited by C. E. Finch and E. L. Schneider. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985, p. 322–356.
 119. Harrison, D. E., J. R. Archer, and C. M. Astle. The effect of hypophysectomy on thymic aging in mice. J. Immunol. 129: 2673–2677, 1982.
 120. Harrison, D. E., C. M. Astle, and J. A. Delaittre. Loss of proliferative capacity in immunohemopoietic stem cells caused by serial transplantation rather than aging. J. Exp. Med. 147: 1526–1531, 1978.
 121. Harrison, D. E., C. M. Astle, and M. Stone. Numbers and functions of transplantable primitive immunohematopoietic stem cells. Effects of age. J. Immunol. 142: 3833–3840, 1989.
 122. Hausman, P. B., and M. E. Weksler. Changes in the immune response with age. In: Handbook of the Biology of Aging (2nd ed.), edited by C. E. Finch and E. L. Schneider. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985, p. 414–432.
 123. Hayakawa, K., and R. R. Hardy. Murine CD4+ T cells subsets defined. J. Exp. Med. 168: 1825–1838, 1988.
 124. Hayakawa, K., and R. R. Hardy. Phenotypic and functional alteration of CD4+ T cells after antigenic stimulation. Resolution of two populations of memory T cells that both secrete interleukin 4. J. Exp. Med. 169: 2245–2250, 1989.
 125. Hayashi, Y., M. Utsuyama, C. Kurashima, and K. Hirokawa. Spontaneous development of organ‐specific autoimmune lesions in aged C57BL/6 mice. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 78: 120–126, 1989.
 126. Heine, J. W., and W. H. Adler. The quantitative production of interferon by mitogen‐stimulated mouse lymphocytes as a function of age and its effect on the lymphocytes proliferative response. J. Immunol. 118: 1366–1369, 1977.
 127. Hertogh‐Huijbregts, A., C. Vissinga, J. Rozing, and L. Nagelkerken. Impairment of CD3‐dependent and CD3‐independent activation pathways in CD4+ and in CD8+ T cells from old CBA/RIJ mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 53: 141–155, 1990.
 128. Hiramoto, R. N., V. K. Ghanta, and S. J. Soong. Effect of thymic hormones on immunity and lifespan. In: Aging and the Immune. Response, edited by E. Goidl, New York: Marcel Dekker, 1986, p. 177–198.
 129. Hirokawa, K., and T. Makinodan. Thymic involution: effect on T cell differentiation. J. Immunol. 114: 1659–1664, 1975.
 130. Hirokawa, K., J. W. Albright, and T. Makinodan. Restoration of impaired immune functions in aging animals. I. Effect of syngeneic thymus and bone marrow grafts. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 5: 371–376, 1976.
 131. Hirokawa, K., S. Kubo, M. Utsuyama, C. Kurashima, and T. Sado. Age‐related change in the potential of bone marrow cells to repopulate the thymus and splenic T cells in mice. Cell. Immunol. 100: 443–451, 1986.
 132. Hirokawa, K., K. Sato, and T. Makinodan. Restoration of impaired immune functions in aging animals. V. Long‐term immunopotentiating effects of combined young bone marrow and newborn thymus grafts. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 22: 297–304, 1982.
 133. Hirokawa, K., M. Utsuyama, M. Kasai, A. Konno, C. Kurashima, and E. Moriizumi. Age‐related hyperplasia of the thymus and T‐cell system in the Buffalo rat. Virchows Arch. B. Cell Pathol. Incl. Mol. Pathol. 59: 38–47, 1990.
 134. Ho, S. P., K. E. Kramer, and W. B. Ershler. Effect of host age upon interleukin‐2‐mediated anti‐tumor responses in a murine fibrosarcoma model. Cancer Immunol. Immunother. 31: 146–150, 1990.
 135. Hobbs, M. V., D. N. Ernst, B. E. Torbett, A. L. Glase‐brook, M. A. Rehse, D. N. McQuitty, M. L. Thoman, K. Bottomly, A. L. Rothermel, and D. J. Noonan. Cell proliferation and cytokine production by CD4+ cells from old mice. J. Cell. Biochem. 46: 312–320, 1991.
 136. Hobbs, M. V., W. O. Weigle, D. J. Noonan, B. E. Torbett, R. J. McEvilly, R. J. Koch, G. J. Cardenas, and D. N. Ernst. Patterns of cytokine gene expression by CD4+ T cells from young and old mice. J. Immunol. 150: 3602–3614, 1993.
 137. Holbrook, N. J., R. K. Chopra, M. T. McCoy, J. E. Nagel, D. C. Powers, W. H. Adler, and E. L. Schneider. Expression of interleukin 2 and the interleukin 2 receptor in aging rats. Cell Immunol. 120: 1–9, 1989.
 138. Holmes, K. L., C. T. Schnizlein, E. H. Perkins, and J. G. Tew. The effect of age on antigen retention in lymphoid follicles and in collagenous tissue of mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 25: 243–255, 1984.
 139. Hooijkaas, H., A. A. Preesman, A. van Oudenaren, R. Benner, and J. J. Haaijman. Frequency analysis of functional immunoglobulin C and V gene expression in murine B cells at various ages. J. Immunol. 131: 1629–1633, 1983.
 140. Hori, Y., E. H. Perkins, and M. K. Halsall. Decline in phytohemagglutinin responsiveness of spleen cells from aging mice. Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med. 144: 48–53, 1973.
 141. Huang, Y. P., J. C. Pechere, M. Michel, L. Gauthey, M. Loreto, J. A. Curran, and J. P. Michel. In vivo T cell activation, in vitro defective IL‐2 secretion, and response to influenza vaccination in elderly women. J. Immunol. 148: 715–722, 1992.
 142. Inamizu, T., M. P. Chang, and T. Makinodan. Influence of age on the production and regulation of interleukin‐1 mice. Immunology 55: 447–455, 1985.
 143. Irimajiri, N., E. T. Bloom, and T. Makinodan. Suppression of murine natural killer cell activity by adherent cells from aging mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 31: 155–162, 1985.
 144. Iwashima, M., T. Nakayama, M. Kubo, Y. Asano, and T. Tada. Alterations in the proliferative response of T cells from aged and chimeric mice. Int. Arch. Allergy Appl. Immunol. 83: 129–137, 1987.
 145. Jankovic, B. D., and D. Maric. Enkephalin‐induced stimulation of humoral and cellular immune reactions in aged rats. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 621: 135–147, 1991.
 146. Jones, P. G., C. A. Kauffman, A. G. Bergman, C. M. Hayes, M. J. Kluger, and J. G. Cannon. Fever in the elderly. Production of leukocytic pyrogen by monocytes from elderly persons. Gerontology 30: 182–187, 1984.
 147. Kadish, J. L., and R. S. Basch. Hematopoietic thymocyte precursors. I. Assay and kinetics of the appearance of progeny. J. Exp. Med. 143: 1082–1099, 1976.
 148. Kappler, J. W., P. C. Hunter, D. Jacobs, and E. Lord. Functional heterogeneity among the T‐derived lymphocytes of the mouse. I. Analysis by adult thymectomy. J. Immunol. 113: 27–38, 1974.
 149. Kauffman, C. A. Endogenous pyrogen/interleukin‐1 production in aged rats. Exp. Gerontol. 21: 75–78, 1986.
 150. Kawakami, K., and E. T. Bloom. Lymphokine‐activated killer cells and aging in mice: significance for defining the precursor cell. Mech. Ageing Dev. 41: 229–240, 1987.
 151. Kawakami, K., and E. T. Bloom. Lymphokine‐activated killer cells derived from murine bone marrow: age‐associated difference in precursor cell populations demonstrated by response to interferon. Cell Immunol. 116: 163–171, 1988.
 152. Kay, M. M. B., J. Mendoza, J. Diven, T. Denton, N. Union, and M. Lajiness. Age‐related changes in the immune system of mice of eight medium and long‐lived strains and hybrids. I. Organ, cellular and activity changes. Mech. Ageing Dev. 11: 295–346, 1979.
 153. Kelley, K. W., S. Brief, H. J. Westly, J. Novakofski, P. J. Bechtel, J. Simon, and E. B. Walker. GH3 pituitary adenoma cells can reverse thymic aging in rats. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83: 5663–5667, 1986.
 154. Kendig, N. E., F. J. Chrest, J. E. Nagel, R. E. Chaisson, A. J. Saah, and W. H. Adler. Age‐related changes in the immune function of HIV‐1 seropositive adults. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 3: 67–80, 1991.
 155. Kennes, B., C. L. Hubert, D. Brohee, and P. Neve. Early biochemical events associated with lymphocyte activation in ageing. I. Evidence that Ca2+ dependent processes induced by PHA are impaired. Immunology 42: 119–126, 1981.
 156. Khansari, D. N., and T. Gustad. Effects of long‐term, low‐dose growth hormone therapy on immune function and life expectancy of mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 57: 87–100, 1991.
 157. Kim, Y. T., E. A. Goidl, C. Samarut, M. E. Weksler, G. J. Thorbecke, and G. W. Siskind. Bone marrow function. I. Peripheral T cells are responsible for the increased auto‐anti‐idiotype response of older mice. J. Exp. Med. 161: 1237–1242, 1985.
 158. Kirschmann, D. A., and D. M. Murasko. Splenic and inguinal lymph node T cells of aged mice respond differently to polyclonal and antigen‐specific stimuli. Cell Immunol. 139: 426–437, 1992.
 159. Kishimoto, S., S. Tomino, K. Inomata, S. Kotegawa, T. Saito, M. Kuroki, H. Mitsuya, and S. Hisamitsu. Age‐related changes in the subsets and functions of human T lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 121: 1773–1780, 1978.
 160. Kishimoto, S., S. Tomino, H. Mitsuya, and H. Nishimura. Age‐related decrease in frequencies of B‐cell precursors and specific helper T cells involved in the IgG anti‐tetanus toxoid antibody production in humans. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 25: 1–10, 1982.
 161. Klinman, D. M. Cross‐reactivity of IgM‐secreting B cells from normal BALB/c mice. J. Immunol. 149: 3569–3573, 1992a.
 162. Klinman, D. M. Similarities in B cell repertoire development between autoimmune and aging normal mice. J. Immunol. 148: 1353–1358, 1992b.
 163. Klinman, N. R. Antibody‐specific immunoregulation and the immunodeficiency of aging. J. Exp. Med. 154: 547–551, 1981.
 164. Komatsubara, S., B. Cinader, and S. Muramatsu. Functional competence of dendritic cells of ageing C57BL/6 mice. Scand. J. Immunol. 24: 517–525, 1986.
 165. Komuro, T., K. Sano, Y. Asano, and T. Tada. Analysis of age‐related degeneracy of T‐cell repertoire: localized functional failure in CD8+ T cells. Scand. J. Immunol. 32: 545–553, 1990.
 166. Koyama, K., T. Hosokawa, and A. Aoike. Aging effect on the immune functions of murine gut‐associated lymphoid tissues. Dev. Comp. Immunol. 14: 465–473, 1990.
 167. Krishnaraj, R. Negative modulation of human NK cell activity by purinoceptors. 2. Age‐associated, gender‐specific partial loss of sensitivity to ATP. Cell Immunol. 144: 11–21, 1992.
 168. Krishnaraj, R., and G. Blandford. Age‐associated alterations in human natural killer cells. 2. Increased frequency of selective NK subsets. Cell Immunol. 114: 137–148, 1988.
 169. Kubo, M., and B. Cinader. Polymorphism of age‐related changes in interleukin (IL) production: differential changes of T helper subpopulations, synthesizing IL 2, IL 3 and IL 4. Eur. J. Immunol. 20: 1289–1296, 1990.
 170. Kuno, M., and P. Gardner. Ion channels activated by inositol 1,4,5‐trisphosphate in plasma membrane of human T‐lymphocytes. Nature 326: 301–304, 1987.
 171. Lanza, E., and J. Y. Djeu. Age‐independent natural killer cell activity in murine peripheral blood. In: NK Cells and Other Natural Effector Cells, edited by R. B. Herberman, New York: Academic, 1982, p. 335–340.
 172. Lerner, A., B. Philosophe, and R. A. Miller. Defective calcium influx and preserved inositol phosphate generation in T cells from old mice. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 1: 149–157, 1988.
 173. Lerner, A., T. Yamada, and R. A. Miller. PGP‐ 1hi T lymphocytes accumulate with age in mice and respond poorly to concanavalin A. Eur. J. Immunol. 19: 977–982, 1989.
 174. Levine, R. F. Inositol phosphates and Ca2+ entry: toward a proliferation or a simplification? FASEB J. 6: 3085–3091, 1992.
 175. Li, D. D., Y. K. Chien, M. Z. Gu, A. Richardson, and H. T. Cheung. The age‐related decline in interleukin‐3 expression in mice. Life Sci. 43: 1215–1222, 1988.
 176. Li, S. P., and R. A. Miller. Age‐associated decline in IL‐4 production by murine T lymphocytes in extended culture. Cell. Immunol. 151: 187–195, 1993.
 177. Lichtman, A. H., G. B. Segal, and M. A. Lichtman. The role of calcium in lymphocyte proliferation (an interpretive review). Blood 61: 413–422, 1983.
 178. Lustyik, G., and J. J. O'Leary. Aging and intracellular free calcium response in human T cells after stimulation by phytohemagglutinin. J. Gerontol. 44: B30–B36, 1989.
 179. Lyngbye, J., and J. Kroll. Quantitative Immunoelectrophoresis of proteins in serum from a normal population: season‐, age‐, and sex‐related variations. Clin. Chem. 17: 495–500, 1971.
 180. Makinodan, T., and M. M. B. Kay. Age influence on the immune system. Adv. Immunol. 29: 287–330, 1980.
 181. Manoussakis, M. N., A. G. Tzioufas, M. P. Silis, P. J. E. Pange, J. Goudevenos, and H. M. Moutsopoulos. High prevalence of anti‐cardiolipin and other autoantibodies in a healthy elderly population. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 69: 557–565, 1987.
 182. Mascart‐Lemone, F., G. Delespesse, G. Servais, and M. Kunstler. Characterization of immunoregulatory T lymphocytes during ageing by monoclonal antibodies. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 48: 148–154, 1982.
 183. Masoro, E. J. Food restriction in rodents: an evaluation of its role in the study of aging. J. Gerontol. 43: B59–B64, 1988.
 184. Mastro, A. M., and M. C. Smith. Calcium‐dependent activation of lymphocytes by ionophore, A23187, and a phorbol ester tumor promoter. J. Cell. Physiol. 116: 51–56, 1983.
 185. Matour, D., M. Melnicoff, D. Kaye, and D. M. Murasko. The role of T cell phenotypes in decreased lymphoproliferation of the elderly. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 50: 82–99, 1989.
 186. Matsuzaki, G., Y. Yoshikai, K. Kishihara, K. Nomoto, and T. Yokokura. Age‐associated increase in the expression of T cell antigen receptor gamma chain genes in mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 18: 1779–1784, 1988.
 187. McCormick, K. R., J. L. Harr, J. K. Taubenberger, and R. J. Krieg. A murine model for regeneration of the senescent thymus using growth hormone therapy. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 3: 19–26, 1991.
 188. McElvoy, S. J. M., and E. A. Goidl. Studies on immunological maturation. II. The absence of high‐affinity antibody producing cells early in the immune response is only apparent. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 1: 47–54, 1988.
 189. Merkenschlager, M. Confusion over CD45 isoform. Nature 352: 28, 1991.
 190. Meroni, P. L., W. Barcellini, D. Frasca, C. Sguotti, M. O. Borghi, G. DE Bartolo, G. Doria, and C. Zanussi. In vivo immunopotentiating activity of thymopentin in aging humans: increase of IL‐2 production. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 42: 151–159, 1987.
 191. Meydani, S. N., M. Meydani, C. P. Verdon, A. A. Shapiro, J. B. Blumberg, and K. C. Hayes. Vitamin E supplementation suppresses prostaglandin E2 synthesis and enhances the immune response of aged mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 34: 191–201, 1986.
 192. Miller, J. F. A. P. Effect of thymectomy in adult mice on immunological responsiveness. Nature 208: 1337–1338, 1965.
 193. Miller, R. A. Age‐associated decline in precursor frequency for different T cell‐mediated reactions, with preservation of helper or cytotoxic effect per precursor cell. J. Immunol. 132: 63–68, 1984.
 194. Miller, R. A. Immunodeficiency of aging: restorative effects of phorbol ester combined with calcium ionophore. J. Immunol. 137: 805–808, 1986.
 195. Miller, R. A. Accumulation of hyporesponsive, calcium extruding memory T cells as a key feature of age‐dependent immune dysfunction. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 58: 305–317, 1991a.
 196. Miller, R. A. Caloric restriction and immune function: developmental mechanisms. Aging: Clin. Exp. Res. 3: 395–398, 1991b.
 197. Miller, R. A. Gerontology as oncology: research on aging as the key to the understanding of cancer. Cancer 68: 2947–2951, 1991.
 198. Miller, R. A. Aging and cancer—another perspective. J. Gerontol. Biol. Sci. 48: B8–B9, 1993.
 199. Miller, R. A. and D. E. Harrison. Delayed reduction in T cell precursor frequencies accompanies diet‐induced lifespan extension. J. Immunol. 136: 977–983, 1984.
 200. Miller, R. A., and O. Stutman. Decline, in aging mice, of the anti‐TNP cytotoxic T cell response attributable to loss of Lyt‐2−, IL‐2 producing helper cell function. Eur. J. Immunol. 11: 751–756, 1981.
 201. Miller, R. A., and O. Stutman. T cell repopulation from functionally restricted splenic precursors: 10,000 fold expansion documented by using limiting dilution analyses. J. Immunol. 133: 2925–2932, 1984.
 202. Miller, R. A., K. Flurkey, M. Molloy, T. Luby, and M. J. Stadecker. Differential sensitivity of virgin and memory T lymphocytes to calcium ionophores suggests a buoyant density separation method and a model for memory cell hyporesponsiveness to con A. J. Immunol. 147: 3080–3086, 1991.
 203. Miller, R. A., B. Jacobson, G. Weil, and E. R. Simons. Diminished calcium influx in lectin‐stimulated T cells from old mice. J. Cell. Physiol. 132: 337–342, 1987.
 204. Miller, R. A., B. Philosophe, I. Ginis, G. Weil, and B. Jacobson. Defective control of cytoplasmic calcium concentration in T lymphocytes from old mice. J. Cell. Physiol. 138: 175–182, 1989.
 205. Moody, C. E., J. B. Innes, L. Staiano‐Coico, G. S. Incefy, H. T. Thaler, and M. E. Weksler. Lymphocyte transformation induced by autologous cells. XI. The effect of age on the autologous mixed lymphocyte reaction. Immunology 44: 431–438, 1981.
 206. Morgan, E. L., M. L. Thoman, and W. O. Weigle. The immune response in aged C57BL/6 mice. I. Assessment of lesions in the B‐cell and T‐cell compartments of aged mice utilizing the Fc fragment‐mediatied polyclonal antibody response. Cell. Immunol. 63: 16–27, 1981.
 207. Mosmann, T. R., and R. L. Coffman. TH1 and TH2 cells: different patterns of lymphokine secretion lead to different functional properties. Ann. Rev. Immunol. 7: 145–173, 1989.
 208. Moulias, R., J. Proust, A. Wang, F. Congy, M. R. Mares‐Cot, A. Deville Chabrolle, A. Paris Hamelin, and B. Lesourd. Age‐related increase in autoantibodies [Letter]. Lancet 1: 1128–1129, 1984.
 209. Murasko, D. M., B. J. Nelson, R. Silver, and D. Matour. Immunologic response in an elderly population with a mean age of 85. Am. J. Med. 81: 612–618, 1986.
 210. Murasko, D. M., P. Weiner, and D. Kaye. Association of lack of mitogen‐induced lymphocyte proliferation with increased mortality in the elderly. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 1: 1–6, 1988.
 211. Mysliwska, J., A. Mysliwski, P. Romanowski, J. Bigda, D. Sosnowska, and J. Foerster. Monocytes are responsible for depressed natural killer (NK) activity in both young and elderly low NK responders. Gerontology 38: 41–49, 1992.
 212. Nagel, J. E., R. K. Chopra, F. J. Chrest, M. T. McCoy, E. L. Schneider, N. J. Holbrook, and W. H. Adler. Decreased proliferation, interleukin 2 synthesis, and interleukin 2 receptor expression are accompanied by decreased mRNA expression in phytohemagglutinin‐stimulated cells from elderly donors. J. Clin. Invest. 81: 1096–1102, 1988.
 213. Nagel, J. E., R. K. Chopra, D. C. Powers, and W. H. Adler. Effect of age on the human high affinity interleukin 2 receptor of phytohaemagglutinin stimulated peripheral blood lymphocytes. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 75: 286–291, 1989.
 214. Nagelkerken, L., A. Hertogh‐Huijbregts, R. Dobber, and A. Drager. Age‐related changes in lymphokine production related to a decreased number of CD45RBhi CD4+ T cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 21: 273–281, 1991.
 215. Nakahama, M., N. Mohri, S. Mori, G. Shindo, Y. Yokoi, and R. Machinami. Immunohistochemical and histometrical studies of the human thymus with special emphasis on age‐related changes in medullary epithelial and dendritic cells. Virchows Arch. B. Cell Pathol. Inch Mol. Pathol. 58: 245–251, 1990.
 216. Naylor, J. R., S. R. James, and L. K. Trejdosiewicz. Intracellular free Ca2+ fluxes and responses to phorbol ester in T lymhocytes from healthy elderly subjects. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 89: 158–163, 1992.
 217. Negoro, S., and H. Hara. The effect of taurine on the age‐related decline of the immune response in mice: the restorative effect on the T cell proliferative response to costimulation with ionomycin and phorbol myristate acetate. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 315: 229–239, 1992.
 218. Negoro, S., H. Hara, S. Miyata, O. Saiki, T. Tanaka, K. Yoshizaki, T. Igarashi, and S. Kishimoto. Mechanisms of age‐related decline in antigen‐specific T cell proliferative response: IL‐2 receptor expression and recombinant IL‐2 induced proliferative response of purified TAC‐positive T cells. Mech. Ageing Dev. 36: 223–241, 1986.
 219. Nicoletti, C., and J. Cerny. The repertoire diversity and magnitude of antibody responses to bacterial antigens in aged mice: I. Age‐associated changes in antibody responses differ according to the mouse strain. Cell Immunol. 133: 72–83, 1991.
 220. Nicoletti, C., C. Borghesi‐Nicoletti, X. Yang, D. H. Schulze, and J. Cerny. Repertoire diversity of antibody response to bacterial antigens in aged mice. II. Phosphorylcholine‐antibody in young and aged mice differ in both VH/VL gene repertoire and in specificity. J. Immunol. 147: 2750–2755, 1991.
 221. Nordin, A. A., and G. D. Collins. Limiting dilution analysis of alloreactive cytotoxic precursor cells in aging mice. J. Immunol. 131: 2215–2218, 1983.
 222. Odio, M., A. Brodish, and M. J. Ricardo, JR.. Effects on immune responses by chronic stress are modulated by aging. Brain Behav. Immun. 1: 204–215, 1987.
 223. O'Leary, J. J., R. Fox, N. Bergh, K. J. Rodysill, and H. M. Hallgren. Expression of the human T cell antigen receptor complex in advanced age. Mech. Ageing Dev. 45: 239–252, 1988.
 224. Orme, I. M. Aging and immunity to tuberculosis: increased susceptibility of old mice reflects a decreased capacity to generate mediator T lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 138: 4414–4418, 1987.
 225. Orme, I. M. An age‐related loss of the isogeneic barrier to the successful passive cell transfer of antimicrobial immunity in mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 46: 29–32, 1988a.
 226. Orme, I. M. A mouse model of the recrudescence of latent tuberculosis in the elderly. Am. Rev. Respir. Dis. 137: 716–718, 1988b.
 227. Orson, F. M., C. K. Saadeh, D. E. Lewis, and D. L. Nelson. Interleulcin 2 receptor expression by T cells in human aging. Cell. Immunol. 124: 278–291, 1989.
 228. Owen, J. A., M. Allouche, and P. C. Doherty. Limiting dilution analysis of the specificity of influenza‐immune cytotoxic T cells. Cell. Immunol. 67: 49–59, 1982.
 229. Patel, H. R., and R. A. Miller. Age‐associated changes in mitogen‐induced protein phosphorylation in murine T lymphocytes. Eur. J. Immunol. 22: 253–260, 1992.
 230. Patel, P. J. Aging and cellular defense mechanisms: age‐related changes in resistance of mice to Listeria monocytogenes. Infect. Immun. 32: 557–562, 1981a.
 231. Patel, P. J. Aging and antimicrobial immunity. Impaired production of mediator T cells as a basis for the decreased resistance of senescent mice to Listeriosis. J. Exp. Med. 154: 821–831, 1981b.
 232. Perkins, E. H., J. M. Massucci, and P. L. Glover. Antigen presentation by peritoneal macrophages from young adult and old mice. Cell. Immunol. 70: 1–10, 1982.
 233. Philosophe, B., and R. A. Miller. T lymphocyte heterogeneity in old and young mice: functional defects in T cells selected for poor calcium signal generation. Eur. J. Immunol. 19: 695–699, 1989.
 234. Philosophe, B., and R. A. Miller. Diminished calcium signal generation in subsets of T lymphocytes that predominate in old mice. J. Gerontol. Biol. Sci. 45: B87–B93, 1990.
 235. Philosophe, B., and R. A. Miller. Calcium signals in murine T lymphocytes: preservation of responses to PHA and to an anti‐Ly‐6 antibody. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 2: 11–18, 1991.
 236. Pieri, C., R. Recchioni, F. Moroni, F. Marcheselli, and G. Lipponi. Phytohemagglutinin induced changes of membrane lipid packing, c‐myc and c‐myb encoded protein expression in human lymphocytes during aging. Mech. Ageing Dev. 64: 177–187, 1992.
 237. Pilarski, L. M., B. R. Yacyshyn, G. S. Jensen, E. Pruski, and H. F. Pabst. β1 integrin (CD29) expression on human postnatal T cell subsets defined by selective CD45 isoform expression. J. Immunol. 147: 830–837, 1991.
 238. Pross, H. F., and M. G. Baines. Studies of human natural killer cells. I. In vivo parameters affecting normal cytotoxic function. Int. J. Cancer 29: 383–390, 1982.
 239. Proust, J. J., C. R. Filburn, S. A. Harrison, M. A. Buchholz, and A. A. Nordin. Age‐related defect in signal transduction during lectin activation of murine T lymphocytes. J. Immunol. 139: 1472–1478, 1987.
 240. Proust, J. J., D. S. Kittur, M. A. Buchholz, and A. A. Nordin. Restricted expression of mitogen‐induced high affinity IL‐2 receptors in aging mice. J. Immunol. 141: 4209–4216, 1988.
 241. Putnam, A. D., and T. C. Peterson. Effect of aging and other factors on monocyte aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase activity. Mech. Ageing Dev. 60: 61–74, 1991.
 242. Rabinowe, S. L., R. C. Nayak, K. Krisch, K. L. George, and G. S. Eisenbarth. Aging in man. Linear increase of a novel T cell subset defined by antiganglioside monoclonal antibody 3G5. J. Exp. Med. 165: 1436–1441, 1987.
 243. Riley, R. L., M. G. Kruger, and J. Elia. B cell precursors are decreased in senescent BALB/c mice, but retain normal mitotic activity in vivo and in vitro. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 59: 301–313, 1991.
 244. Riley, S. C., B. G. Froscher, P. J. Linton, D. Zharhary, K. Marcu, and N. R. Klinman. Altered Vh gene segment utilization in the response to phosphorylcholine of aged mice. J. Immunol. 143: 3798–3805, 1989.
 245. Roberts‐Thomson, I. C., S. Whittingham, U. Youngchaiyud, and I. R. Mackay. Ageing, immune response, and mortality. Lancet 2: 368–370, 1974.
 246. Rocha, B. B. Population kinetics of precursors of IL 2‐producing peripheral T lymphocytes: evidence for short life expectancy, continuous renewal, and post‐thymic expansion. J. Immunol. 139: 365–372, 1987.
 247. Rodriguez, M. A., J. L. Ceuppens, and J. S. Goodwin. Regulation of IgM rheumatoid factor production in lymphocyte cultures from young and old subjects. J. Immunol. 128: 2422–2428, 1982.
 248. Romball, C. G., and W. O. Weigle. The effect of aging on the induction of experimental autoimmune thyroiditis. J. Immunol. 139: 1490–1495, 1987.
 249. Rytel, M. W., K. S. Larratt, P. A. Turner, and J. H. Kalbfleisch. Interferon response to mitogens and viral antigens in elderly and young adult subjects. J. Infect. Dis. 153: 984–987, 1986.
 250. Sanders, M. E., M. W. Makgoba, and S. Shaw. Human naive and memory T cells: reinterpretation of helper‐inducer and suppressor‐inducer subsets. Immunol. Today 9: 195–199, 1988.
 251. Sauder, D. N., U. Ponnappan, and B. Cinader. Effect of age on cutaneous interleukin 1 expression. Immunol. Lett. 20: 111–114, 1989.
 252. Sawin, C. T., S. T. Bigos, S. Land, and P. Bacharach. The aging thyroid. Relationship between elevated serum thyrotropin level and thyroid antibodies in elderly patients. Am. J. Med. 79: 591–595, 1985.
 253. Saxena, R. K., Q. B. Saxena, and W. H. Adler. Interleukin‐2‐induced activation of natural killer activity in spleen cells from old and young mice. Immunology 51: 719–726, 1984.
 254. Saxena, R. K., Q. B. Saxena, and W. H. Adler. Lectin‐induced cytotoxic activity in spleen cells from young and old mice. Age‐related changes in types of effector cells, lymphokine production and response. Immunology 64: 457–461, 1988.
 255. Schlunck, T., W. Schraut, G. Riethmuller, and H. W. Ziegler‐Heitbrock. Inverse relationship of Ca2+ mobilization and cell proliferation in CD8+ memory and virgin T cells. Eur. J. Immunol. 20: 1957–1963, 1990.
 256. Schulze, D. H., P. Mancillas, A. Kaushik, C. Bona, and G. Kelsoe. Mitogen‐induced VH and VK expression is similar in young adult and aged mice. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 3: 127–134, 1992.
 257. Schwab, R., P. B. Hausman, E. Rinnooy‐Kan, and M. E. Weksler. Immunological studies of ageing. X. Impaired T lymphocytes and normal monocyte response from elderly humans to the mitogenic antibodies OKT3 and Leu 4. Immunology 55: 677–684, 1985.
 258. Schwab, R., L. M. Pfeffer, P. Szabo, D. Gamble, C. M. Schnurr, and M. E. Weksler. Defective expression of high affinity IL‐2 receptors on activated T cells from aged humans. Int. Immunol. 2: 239–246, 1990.
 259. Schwab, R., C. Russo, and M. E. Weksler. Altered major histocompatibility complex‐restricted antigen recognition by T cells from elderly humans. Eur. J. Immunol. 22: 2989–2993, 1992.
 260. Scollay, R. G., E. C. Butcher, and I. L. Weissman. Thymus cell migration. Quantitative aspects of cellular traffic from the thymus to the periphery in mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 10: 210–218, 1980.
 261. Scott, M., R. Bolla, and W. D. Denckla. Age‐related changes in immune function of rats and the effect of long‐term hypophysectomy. Mech. Ageing Dev. 11: 127–136, 1979.
 262. Scribner, D. J., H. L. Weiner, and J. W. Moorhead. Antiimmunoglobulin stimulation of murine lymphocytes. V. Age‐related decline in Fc receptor‐mediated immunoregulation. J. Immunol. 121: 377–382, 1978.
 263. Segal, J. Studies on the age‐related decline in the response of lymphoid cells to mitogens: measurements of concanavalin A binding and stimulation of calcium and sugar uptake in thymocytes from rats of varying ages. Mech. Ageing Dev. 33: 295–303, 1986.
 264. Serra, H. M., J. F. Krowka, J. A. Ledbetter, and L. M. Pilarski. Loss of CD45R (Lp220) represents a post‐thymic T cell differentiation event. J. Immunol. 140: 1435–1441, 1988.
 265. Seth, A., M. Nagarkatti, P. S. Nagarkatti, B. Subbarao, and V. Udhayakumar. Macrophages but not B cells from aged mice are defective in stimulating autoreactive T cells in vitro. Mech. Ageing Dev. 52: 107–124, 1990.
 266. Shi, J., and R. A. Miller. Tyrosine‐specific protein phosphorylation in response to anti‐CD3 antibody is diminished in old mice. J. Gerontol. Biol. Sci. 47: B147–B153, 1992.
 267. Shi, J., and R. A. Miller. Differential tyrosine‐specific protein phosphorylation in mouse T lymphocyte subsets. Effect of age. J. Immunol. 151: 730–739, 1993.
 268. Sidman, C. L., E. A. Luther, J. D. Marshall, K. A. Nguyen, D. C. Roopenian, and S. M. Worthen. Increased expression of major histocompatibility complex antigens on lymphocytes from aged mice. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 84: 7624–7628, 1987.
 269. Simpson, E., and H. Cantor. Regulation of the immune response by subclasses of T lymphocytes. II. The effect of adult thymectomy upon humoral and cellular responses in mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 5: 337–343, 1975.
 270. Smith, J. P., A. M. Lister, J. G. Tew, and A. K. Szakal. Kinetics of the tingible body macrophage response in mouse germinal center development and its depression with age. Anat. Rec. 229: 511–520, 1991.
 271. Snow, E. C. An evaluation of antigen‐driven expansion and differentiation of hapten‐specific B lymphocytes purified from aged mice. J. Immunol. 139: 1758–1762, 1987.
 272. Sohnle, P. G., S. E. Larson, C. Collins‐Lech, and A. R. Guansing. Failure of lymphokine‐producing lymphocytes from aged humans to undergo activation by recall antigens. J. Immunol. 124: 2169–2174, 1980.
 273. Sprecher, E., Y. Becker, G. Kraal, E. Hall, D. Harrison, and L. D. Schultz. Effect of aging on epidermal dendritic cell populations in C57BL/6J mice. J. Invest. Dermatol. 94: 247–253, 1990.
 274. Stutman, O. Two main features of T‐cell development: thyus traffic and postthymic maturation. Contemp. Top. Immunobiol. 7: 1–46, 1977.
 275. Stutman, O. Role of thymic hormones in T cell differentiation. Clin. Immunol. Allergy 3: 9–81, 1983.
 276. Stutman, O., C. J. Paige, and E. F. Figarella. Natural cytotoxic cells against solid tumors in mice. I. Strain and age distribution and target cell susceptibility. J. Immunol. 121: 1819–1826, 1978.
 277. Subbarao, B., J. Morris, and R. J. Kryscio. Phenotypic and functional properties of B lymphocytes from aged mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 51: 223–241, 1990.
 278. Szakal, A. K., J. K. Taylor, J. P. Smith, M. H. Kosco, G. F. Burton, and J. G. Tew. Morphometry and kinetics of antigen transport and developing antigen retaining reticulum of follicular dendritic cells in lymph nodes of aging mice. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 1: 7–22, 1988.
 279. Szewczuk, M. R., and R. J. Campbell. Lack of age‐associated auto‐anti‐idiotypic antibody regulation in mucosal‐associated lymph nodes. Eur. J. Immunol. 11: 650–656, 1981.
 280. Thoman, M. L. Impaired responsiveness of IL‐2 receptor‐expressing T lymphocytes from aged mice. Cell Immunol. 135: 410–417, 1991.
 281. Thoman, M. L., and W. O. Weigle. Lymphokines and aging: interleukin‐2 production and activity in aged animals. J. Immunol. 127: 2101–2106, 1981.
 282. Thoman, M. L., and W. O. Weigle. Cell‐mediated immunity in aged mice: an underlying lesion in IL 2 synthesis. J. Immunol. 128: 2358–2361, 1982.
 283. Thoman, M. L., and W. O. Weigle. Reconstitution of in vivo cell‐mediated lympholysis responses in aged mice with interleukin 2. J. Immunol. 134: 949–952, 1985.
 284. Thoman, M. L., and W. O. Weigle. Partial restoration of con A‐induced proliferation, IL‐2 receptor expression, and IL‐2 synthesis in aged murine lymphocytes by phorbol myristate acetate and ionomycin. Cell. Immunol. 114: 1–11, 1988.
 285. Thoman, M. L., and W. O. Weigle. The cellular and subcellular bases of immunosenescence. Adv. Immunol. 46: 221–261, 1989.
 286. Thoman, M. L., E. A. Keogh, and W. O. Weigle. Response of aged T and B lymphocytes to IL‐4. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 1: 245–253, 1988.
 287. Thompson, J. S., D. R. Wekstein, J. L. Rhoades, C. Kirkpatrick, S. A. Brown, T. Roszman, R. Straus, and N. Tietz. The immune status of healthy centenarians. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 32: 274–281, 1984.
 288. Tomer, Y., S. Mendlovic, T. Kukulansky, E. Mozes, Y. Shoenfeld, and A. Globerson. Effects of aging on the induction of experimental systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 58: 233–244, 1991.
 289. Tsang, K. Y., J. F. Pan, D. L. Swanger, and H. H. Fudenberg. In vitro restoration of immune responses in aging humans by isoprinosine. Immunopharmacology 7: 199–206, 1985.
 290. Tsuda, T., Y. T. Kim, G. W. Siskind, and M. E. Weksler. Old mice recover the ability to produce IgG and high‐avidity antibody following irradiation with partial bone marrow shielding. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85: 1169–1173, 1988.
 291. Utsuyama, M., K. Hirokawa, C. Kurashima, M. Fukayama, T. Inamatsu, K. Suzuki, W. Hashimoto, and K. Sato. Differential age‐change in the numbers of CD4+ CD45RA+ and CD4+ CD29+ T cell subsets in human peripheral blood. Mech. Ageing Dev. 63: 57–68, 1992.
 292. Utsuyama, M., M. Kasai, C. Kurashima, and K. Hirokawa. Age influence on the thymic capacity to promote differentiation of T cells: induction of different composition of T cell subsets by aging thymus. Mech. Ageing Dev. 58: 267–277, 1991.
 293. Van Seventer, G. A., W. Newman, Y. Shimizu, T. B. Nutman, Y. Tanaka, K. J. Horgan, T. V. Gopal, E. Ennis, D. O'Sullivan, H. Grey, and S. Shaw. Analysis of T cell stimulation by superantigen plus major histocompatibility complex class II molecules or by CD3 monoclonal antibody: costimulation by purified adhesion ligands VCAM‐1, ICAM‐1, but not ELAM‐1. J. Exp. Med. 174: 901–913, 1991.
 294. Varga, Z., N. Bressani, A. M. Zaia, L. Bene, T. Fulop, A. Leovey, N. Fabris, S. Damjanovich, and A. M. Zaid. Cell surface markers, inositol phosphate levels and membrane potential of lymphocytes from young and old human patients. Immunol. Lett. 23: 275–280, 1990. [Erratum appears in Immunol Lett 26: 111, 1990.].
 295. Vie, H., and R. A. Miller. Decline, with age, in the proportion of mouse T cells that express IL‐2 receptors after mitogen stimulation. Mech. Ageing Dev. 33: 313–322, 1986.
 296. Vissinga, C., A. Hertogh‐Huijbregts, J. Rozing, and L. Nagelkerken. Analysis of the age‐related decline in alloreactivity of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in CBA/RIJ mice. Mech. Ageing Dev. 51: 179–94, 1990.
 297. Walker, D., J. F. Gauchat, A. L. de Weck, and B. M. Stadler. Analysis of leukocyte markers in elderly individuals. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 2: 31–43, 1990.
 298. Walters, C. S., and H. N. Claman. Age‐related changes in cell‐mediated immunity in BALB/c mice. J. Immunol. 115: 1438–1443, 1975.
 299. Wayne, S. J., R. L. Rhyne, P. J. Garry, and J. S. Goodwin. Cell‐mediated immunity as a predictor of morbidity and mortality in subjects over 60. J. Gerontol. Med. Sci. 45: M45–M48, 1990.
 300. Wei, J., H. Xu, J. L. Davies, and G. P. Hemmings. Increase of plasma IL‐6 concentration with age in healthy subjects. Life Sci. 51: 1953–1956, 1992.
 301. Weindruch, R., B. H. Devens, H. V. Raff, and R. L. Walford. Influence of dietary restriction and aging on natural killer cell activity in mice. J. Immunol. 130: 993–996, 1983.
 302. Weiner, H. L., D. J. Scribner, A. L. Schocket, and J. W. Moorhead. Increased proliferative response of human peripheral blood lymphocytes to anti‐immunoglobulin antibodies in elderly people. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 9: 356–362, 1978.
 303. Weksler, M. E., R. Schwab, F. Huetz, Y. T. Kim, and A. Coutinho. Cellular basis for the age‐associated increase in autoimmune reactions. Int. Immunol. 2: 329–335, 1990.
 304. Whisler, R. L., L. Beiqing, Y. G. Newhouse, J. D. Walters, M. B. Breckenridge, and I. S. Grants. Signal transduction in human B cells during aging: alterations in stimulus‐induced phosphorylations of tyrosine and serine‐threonine substrates and in cytosolic calcium responsiveness. Lymphokine Cytokine Res. 10: 463–473, 1991.
 305. Whisler, R. L., Y. G. Newhouse, R. L. Donnerberg, and C. M. Tobin. Characterization of intracellular ionized calcium responsiveness and inositol phosphate production among resting and stimulated peripheral blood T cells from elderly humans. Aging: Immunol. Infect. Dis. 3: 27–36, 1991.
 306. Whisler, R. L., J. W. Williams, JR., and Y. G. Newhouse. Human B cell proliferative responses during aging. Reduced RNA synthesis and DNA replication after signal transduction by surface immunoglobulins compared to B cell antigenic determinants CD20 and CD40. Mech. Ageing Dev. 61: 209–222, 1991.
 307. Witkowski, J., and H. S. Micklem. Decreased membrane potential of T lymphocytes in ageing mice: flow cytometric studies with a carbocyanine dye. Immunology 56: 307–313, 1985.
 308. Witkowski, J. M., and H. S. Micklem. Transmembrane electrical potential of lymphocytes in ageing mice. Flow cytometric analysis of mitogen‐stimulated cells. Mech. Ageing Dev. 62: 167–179, 1992.
 309. Witkowski, J. M., and R. A. Miller. Increased functions of P‐glycoprotein in T lymphocytes of aging mice. J. Immunol. 150: 1296–1306, 1993.
 310. Witkowski, J. M., A. Mysliwski, and J. Mysliwska. Decrease of lymphocyte (Na+, K+)ATP‐ase activity in aged people. Mech. Ageing Dev. 33: 11–17, 1985.
 311. Wrabatz, L. G., J. P. Antel, J. J. F. Oger, B. G. W. Arnason, J. M. Goust, and J. E. Hopper. Age‐related changes in vivo immunoglobulin secretion: comparison of responses to T‐dependent and T‐independent polyclonal activators. Cell. Immunol. 74: 398–403, 1982.
 312. Wu, W. T., M. Pahlavani, H. T. Cheung, and A. Richardson. The effect of aging on the expression of interleukin 2 messenger ribonucleic acid. Cell. Immunol. 100: 224–231, 1986.
 313. Zharhary, D. T cell involvement in the decrease of antigen‐responsive B cells in aged mice. Eur. J. Immunol. 16: 1175–1178, 1986.
 314. Zharhary, D. Age‐related changes in the capability of the bone marrow to generate B cells. J. Immunol. 141: 1863–1869, 1988.
 315. Zharhary, D., and N. R. Klinman. Antigen responsiveness of the mature and generative B cell populations of aged mice. J. Exp. Med. 157: 1300–1308, 1983.
 316. Zharhary, D., and N. R. Klinman. B cell repertoire diversity to PR8 influenza virus does not decrease with age. J. Immunol. 133: 2285–2287, 1984.
 317. Zharhary, D., and N. R. Klinman. A selective increase in the generation of phosphorylcholine‐specific B cells associated with aging. J. Immunol. 136: 368–370, 1986.

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

How to Cite

Richard A. Miller. Immune System. Compr Physiol 2011, Supplement 28: Handbook of Physiology, Aging: 555-590. First published in print 1995. doi: 10.1002/cphy.cp110121