Comprehensive Physiology Wiley Online Library
For Librarians For Authors Editors About

Biomechanics of Cardiac Function

Andrew P. Voorhees, Hai‐Chao Han

10.1002/cphy.c140070

Source: Volume 5, Issue 4, October 2015

Published online: September 2015

Full Article on Wiley Online Library



ABSTRACT

The heart pumps blood to maintain circulation and ensure the delivery of oxygenated blood to all the organs of the body. Mechanics play a critical role in governing and regulating heart function under both normal and pathological conditions. Biological processes and mechanical stress are coupled together in regulating myocyte function and extracellular matrix structure thus controlling heart function. Here, we offer a brief introduction to the biomechanics of left ventricular function and then summarize recent progress in the study of the effects of mechanical stress on ventricular wall remodeling and cardiac function as well as the effects of wall mechanical properties on cardiac function in normal and dysfunctional hearts. Various mechanical models to determine wall stress and cardiac function in normal and diseased hearts with both systolic and diastolic dysfunction are discussed. The results of these studies have enhanced our understanding of the biomechanical mechanism in the development and remodeling of normal and dysfunctional hearts. Biomechanics provide a tool to understand the mechanism of left ventricular remodeling in diastolic and systolic dysfunction and guidance in designing and developing new treatments. © 2015 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 5:1623‐1644, 2015.

Comprehensive Physiology offers downloadable PowerPoint presentations of figures for non-profit, educational use, provided the content is not modified and full credit is given to the author and publication.

Download a PowerPoint presentation of all images


Figure 1. Figure 1. The pressure volume relationship. (A) A graphical representation of the pressure volume loop depicting the events of the cardiac cycle, and depicting stroke work as the area inside the loop. (B) Occlusion of the vena cava reduces LV filling and allows for the determination of the end‐diastolic pressure volume relationship (EDPVR) and the end‐systolic pressure volume relationship (ESPVR). (C) Increased myocardial stiffness leads to a leftward and upward shift of the EDPVR, reducing diastolic filling (red dotted line). Dilation of the LV can be noted as a rightward shift of the EDPVR (blue dotted line).
Figure 2. Figure 2. The sarcomere of the cardiac myocyte. Titin is an elastic protein that runs from the Z band all the way to the M‐line, and provides the sarcomere with its passive strength. Myosin is the motor protein of the sarcomere and its interaction with the actin filament drives cardiomyocyte contraction. Figure adapted from McNally, 2012 with permission of the American Society for Clinical Investigation (133).
Figure 3. Figure 3. Collagen fiber structure and assembly. Procollagen assembles as a triple helix and then has the N and C terminal ends cleaved by proteases. The collagen triple helixes then assemble into larger fibers aided by collagen cross‐linking facilitated by lysyl oxidase. Figure adapted from Kadler, 2004 with permission of Elsevier (90).
Figure 4. Figure 4. Progression of left ventricle dilation and remodeling post‐MI. The inner pictures display the cross‐section of a mouse left ventricle stained with 1% 2,3,5‐triphenyltetrazolium chloride after myocardial infarction. Significant cavity dilation and wall thinning can be observed. The outer pictures show histological sections stained with picrosirius red for collagen. An increase in collagen is seen around day 7 and by day 28 collagen fibers have become densely packed and highly aligned. Figure adapted from Zamilpa and Lindsey, 2010 with permission of Elsevier (220)
Figure 5. Figure 5. Regulation of MI outcome by mechanical feedback. Dilation of the LV due to the loss of cellular structure increases the wall stress which in turn signals for increased inflammation and fibrosis. Inflammation reduces tissue stiffness while fibrosis increases tissue stiffness. Increased tissue stiffness in turn reduces LV stretch and dilation. Unbalances in the feedback system can lead either to systolic heart failure due to infarct expansion and LV dilation, or diastolic heart failure due to overstiffening of the infarct. The + symbol in the schematic represents a positive correlation between the factors, that is, increased LV dilation increases wall stresses, while the – symbol denotes a negative correlation.
Figure 6. Figure 6. Myocardial viability and LV function. Schematic illustration of myocardial viability change postrevascularization and a scheme to determine the left ventricular volume from short axis slices. λ with subscript N, H, I, represent the contraction ratio in the normal, hibernating and infarct regions, respectively. The ventricular volume is determined by summation of the area (A) multiplied by slice thickness h.


Figure 1. The pressure volume relationship. (A) A graphical representation of the pressure volume loop depicting the events of the cardiac cycle, and depicting stroke work as the area inside the loop. (B) Occlusion of the vena cava reduces LV filling and allows for the determination of the end‐diastolic pressure volume relationship (EDPVR) and the end‐systolic pressure volume relationship (ESPVR). (C) Increased myocardial stiffness leads to a leftward and upward shift of the EDPVR, reducing diastolic filling (red dotted line). Dilation of the LV can be noted as a rightward shift of the EDPVR (blue dotted line).


Figure 2. The sarcomere of the cardiac myocyte. Titin is an elastic protein that runs from the Z band all the way to the M‐line, and provides the sarcomere with its passive strength. Myosin is the motor protein of the sarcomere and its interaction with the actin filament drives cardiomyocyte contraction. Figure adapted from McNally, 2012 with permission of the American Society for Clinical Investigation (133).


Figure 3. Collagen fiber structure and assembly. Procollagen assembles as a triple helix and then has the N and C terminal ends cleaved by proteases. The collagen triple helixes then assemble into larger fibers aided by collagen cross‐linking facilitated by lysyl oxidase. Figure adapted from Kadler, 2004 with permission of Elsevier (90).


Figure 4. Progression of left ventricle dilation and remodeling post‐MI. The inner pictures display the cross‐section of a mouse left ventricle stained with 1% 2,3,5‐triphenyltetrazolium chloride after myocardial infarction. Significant cavity dilation and wall thinning can be observed. The outer pictures show histological sections stained with picrosirius red for collagen. An increase in collagen is seen around day 7 and by day 28 collagen fibers have become densely packed and highly aligned. Figure adapted from Zamilpa and Lindsey, 2010 with permission of Elsevier (220)


Figure 5. Regulation of MI outcome by mechanical feedback. Dilation of the LV due to the loss of cellular structure increases the wall stress which in turn signals for increased inflammation and fibrosis. Inflammation reduces tissue stiffness while fibrosis increases tissue stiffness. Increased tissue stiffness in turn reduces LV stretch and dilation. Unbalances in the feedback system can lead either to systolic heart failure due to infarct expansion and LV dilation, or diastolic heart failure due to overstiffening of the infarct. The + symbol in the schematic represents a positive correlation between the factors, that is, increased LV dilation increases wall stresses, while the – symbol denotes a negative correlation.


Figure 6. Myocardial viability and LV function. Schematic illustration of myocardial viability change postrevascularization and a scheme to determine the left ventricular volume from short axis slices. λ with subscript N, H, I, represent the contraction ratio in the normal, hibernating and infarct regions, respectively. The ventricular volume is determined by summation of the area (A) multiplied by slice thickness h.
References
 1. Amundsen BH , Helle‐Valle T , Edvardsen T , Torp H , Crosby J , Lyseggen E , Støylen A , Ihlen H , Lima JAC , Smiseth OA , Slørdahl SA . Noninvasive myocardial strain measurement by speckle tracking echocardiography: Validation against sonomicrometry and tagged magnetic resonance imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol 47: 789‐793, 2006.
 2. Anzai T . Post‐infarction inflammation and left ventricular remodeling: A double‐edged sword. Circ J 77: 580‐587, 2013.
 3. Aronson D , Musallam A , Lessick J , Dabbah S , Carasso S , Hammerman H , Reisner S , Agmon Y , Mutlak D . Impact of diastolic dysfunction on the development of heart failure in diabetic patients after acute myocardial infarction. Circ Heart Fail 3: 125‐131, 2010.
 4. Ashikaga H , Criscione JC , Omens JH , Covell JW , Ingels NB . Transmural left ventricular mechanics underlying torsional recoil during relaxation. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 286: H640‐H647, 2004.
 5. Ashraf M , Myronenko A , Nguyen T , Inage A , Smith W , Lowe RI , Thiele K , Gibbons Kroeker CA , Tyberg JV , Smallhorn JF , Sahn DJ , Song X . Defining left ventricular apex‐to‐base twist mechanics computed from high‐resolution 3D echocardiography: Validation against sonomicrometry. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 3: 227‐234, 2010.
 6. Azeloglu EU , Albro MB , Thimmappa VA , Ateshian GA , Costa KD . Heterogeneous transmural proteoglycan distribution provides a mechanism for regulating residual stresses in the aorta. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 294: H1197‐H1205, 2008.
 7. Aziz F , Tk LA , Enweluzo C , Dutta S , Zaeem M . Diastolic heart failure: A concise review. J Clin Med Res 5: 327‐334, 2013.
 8. Baba HA , Stypmann J , Grabellus F , Kirchhof P , Sokoll A , Schafers M , Takeda A , Wilhelm MJ , Scheld HH , Takeda N , Breithardt G , Levkau B . Dynamic regulation of MEK/Erks and Akt/GSK‐3beta in human end‐stage heart failure after left ventricular mechanical support: Myocardial mechanotransduction‐sensitivity as a possible molecular mechanism. Cardiovasc Res 59: 390‐399, 2003.
 9. Badiwala MV , Rao V . Left ventricular device as destination therapy: Are we there yet? Curr Opin Cardiol 24: 184‐189, 2009.
 10. Barbier P , Solomon SB , Schiller NB , Glantz SA . Left atrial relaxation and left ventricular systolic function determine left atrial reservoir function. Circulation 100: 427‐436, 1999.
 11. Becker RC , Gore JM , Lambrew C , Douglas Weaver W , Michael Rubison R , French WJ , Tiefenbrunn AJ , Bowlby LJ , Rogers WJ . A composite view of cardiac rupture in the United States national registry of myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 27: 1321‐1326, 1996.
 12. Blaudszun G , Morel DR . Relevance of the volume‐axis intercept, V0, compared with the slope of end‐systolic pressure‐volume relationship in response to large variations in inotropy and afterload in rats. Exp Physiol 96: 1179‐1195, 2011.
 13. Blom A , Pilla J , Gorman R , Gorman J , Mukherjee R , Spinale F , Acker M . Infarct size reduction and attenuation of global left ventricular remodeling with the CorCap™ cardiac support device following acute myocardial infarction in sheep. Heart Fail Rev 10: 125‐139, 2005.
 14. Boccafoschi F , Mosca C , Ramella M , Valente G , Cannas M . The effect of mechanical strain on soft (cardiovascular) and hard (bone) tissues: Common pathways for different biological outcomes. Cell Adh Migr 7: 165‐173, 2013.
 15. Bogen DK , Needleman A , McMahon TA . An analysis of myocardial infarction. The effect of regional changes in contractility. Circ Res 55: 805‐815, 1984.
 16. Bogen DK , Rabinowitz SA , Needleman A , McMahon TA , Abelmann WH . An analysis of the mechanical disadvantage of myocardial infarction in the canine left ventricle. Circ Res 47: 728‐741, 1980.
 17. Bollensdorff C , Lookin O , Kohl P . Assessment of contractility in intact ventricular cardiomyocytes using the dimensionless ‘Frank‐Starling Gain’ index. Pflügers Archiv 462: 39‐48, 2011.
 18. Bonow RO . The hibernating myocardium: Implications for management of congestive heart failure. (Review). Am J Cardiol 75: 17A‐25A, 1995.
 19. Borlaug BA , Kass DA . Invasive hemodynamic assessment in heart failure. Cardiol Clin 29: 269‐280, 2011.
 20. Bradley LM , Douglass MF , Chatterjee D , Akira S , Baaten BJG . Matrix metalloprotease 9 mediates neutrophil migration into the airways in response to influenza virus‐induced toll‐like receptor signaling. PLoS Pathog 8: e1002641, 2012.
 21. Brown AG , Shi Y , Arndt A , Muller J , Lawford P , Hose DR . Importance of realistic LVAD profiles for assisted aortic simulations: Evaluation of optimal outflow anastomosis locations. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 15: 669‐680, 2012.
 22. Buckberg G , Hoffman JIE , Nanda NC , Coghlan C , Saleh S , Athanasuleas C . Ventricular torsion and untwisting: further insights into mechanics and timing interdependence: A viewpoint. Echocardiography 28: 782‐804, 2011.
 23. Burns AT , La Gerche A , Prior DL , Macisaac AI . Left ventricular untwisting is an important determinant of early diastolic function. JACC Cardiovasc Imaging 2: 709‐716, 2009.
 24. Butcher JT , Penrod AM , García AJ , Nerem RM . Unique morphology and focal adhesion development of valvular endothelial cells in static and fluid flow environments. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 24: 1429‐1434, 2004.
 25. Caccamo M , Eckman P , John R . Current state of ventricular assist devices. Curr Heart Fail Rep 8: 91‐98, 2011.
 26. Campbell PH , Hunt DL , Jones Y , Harwood F , Amiel D , Omens JH , McCulloch AD . Effects of biglycan deficiency on myocardial infarct structure and mechanics. Mol Cell Biomech 5: 27‐35, 2008.
 27. Campbell SG , Flaim SN , Leem CH , McCulloch AD . Mechanisms of transmurally varying myocyte electromechanics in an integrated computational model. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci 366: 3361‐3380, 2008.
 28. Canty EG , Starborg T , Lu Y , Humphries SM , Holmes DF , Meadows RS , Huffman A , O'Toole ET , Kadler KE . Actin filaments are required for fibripositor‐mediated collagen fibril alignment in tendon. J Biol Chem 281: 38592‐38598, 2006.
 29. Carver W , Nagpal ML , Nachtigal M , Borg TK , Terracio L . Collagen expression in mechanically stimulated cardiac fibroblasts. Circ Res 69: 116‐122, 1991.
 30. Chang MC , Mondy JS, III , Meredith JW , Miller PR , Owings JT , Holcroft JW . Clinical application of ventricular end‐systolic elastance and the ventricular pressure‐volume diagram. Shock 7: 413‐419, 1997.
 31. Cingolani OH , Kass DA . Pressure‐volume relation analysis of mouse ventricular function. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 301: H2198‐H2206, 2011.
 32. de Tombe PP , ter Keurs HE . The velocity of cardiac sarcomere shortening: Mechanisms and implications. J Muscle Res Cell Motil 33: 431‐437, 2012.
 33. Demer LL , Yin FC . Passive biaxial mechanical properties of isolated canine myocardium. J Physiol 339: 615‐630, 1983.
 34. Di Donato M , Castelvecchio S , Menicanti L . Surgical treatment of ischemic heart failure: The Dor procedure. Circ J 73(Suppl A): A1‐5, 2009.
 35. Dickstein K , Cohen‐Solal A , Filippatos G , McMurray JJV , Ponikowski P , Poole‐Wilson PA , Strömberg A , van Veldhuisen DJ , Atar D , Hoes AW , Keren A , Mebazaa A , Nieminen M , Priori SG , Swedberg K , Guidelines ECfP , Vahanian A , Camm J , De Caterina R , Dean V , Dickstein K , Filippatos G , Funck‐Brentano C , Hellemans I , Kristensen SD , McGregor K , Sechtem U , Silber S , Tendera M , Widimsky P , Zamorano JL , Reviewers D , Tendera M , Auricchio A , Bax J , Böhm M , Corrà U , della Bella P , Elliott PM , Follath F , Gheorghiade M , Hasin Y , Hernborg A , Jaarsma T , Komajda M , Kornowski R , Piepoli M , Prendergast B , Tavazzi L , Vachiery J‐L , Verheugt FWA , Zamorano JL , Zannad F . ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2008: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute and Chronic Heart Failure 2008 of the European Society of Cardiology. Developed in collaboration with the Heart Failure Association of the ESC (HFA) and endorsed by the European Society of Intensive Care Medicine (ESICM). Eur Heart J 29: 2388‐2442, 2008.
 36. Dor V , Sabatier M , Montiglio F , Civaia F , DiDonato M . Endoventricular patch reconstruction of ischemic failing ventricle. a single center with 20 years experience. advantages of magnetic resonance imaging assessment. Heart Fail Rev 9: 269‐286, 2004.
 37. Ducharme A , Frantz S , Aikawa M , Rabkin E , Lindsey M , Rohde LE , Schoen FJ , Kelly RA , Werb Z , Libby P , Lee RT . Targeted deletion of matrix metalloproteinase‐9 attenuates left ventricular enlargement and collagen accumulation after experimental myocardial infarction. J Clin Invest 106: 55‐62, 2000.
 38. Dunlay SM , Roger VL . Gender differences in the pathophysiology, clinical presentation, and outcomes of ischemic heart failure. Curr Heart Fail Rep 9: 267‐276, 2012.
 39. Duscher D , Maan ZN , Wong VW , Rennert RC , Januszyk M , Rodrigues M , Hu M , Whitmore AJ , Whittam AJ , Longaker MT , Gurtner GC . Mechanotransduction and fibrosis. J Biomech 47: 1997‐2005, 2014.
 40. Ennezat PV , Lamblin N , Mouquet F , Tricot O , Quandalle P , Aumegeat V , Equine O , Nugue O , Segrestin B , de Groote P , Bauters C . The effect of ageing on cardiac remodelling and hospitalization for heart failure after an inaugural anterior myocardial infarction. Eur Heart J 29: 1992‐1999, 2008.
 41. Fan D , Takawale A , Lee J , Kassiri Z . Cardiac fibroblasts, fibrosis and extracellular matrix remodeling in heart disease. Fibrogenesis Tissue Repair 5: 15, 2012.
 42. Fann JI , Sarris GE , Ingels NB, Jr , Niczyporuk MA , Yun KL , Daughters GT, II , Derby GC , Miller DC . Regional epicardial and endocardial two‐dimensional finite deformations in canine left ventricle. Am J Physiol 261: H1402‐1410, 1991.
 43. Foley TA , Mankad SV , Anavekar NS , Bonnichsen CR , Morris MF , Miller TD , Araoz PA . Measuring left ventricualar ejection fraction ‐ techniques and potential pitfalls. Euro Cardiol 8: 108‐114, 2012.
 44. Fomovsky G , Macadangdang J , Ailawadi G , Holmes J . Model‐based design of mechanical therapies for myocardial infarction. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 4: 82‐91, 2011.
 45. Fomovsky GM , Clark SA , Parker KM , Ailawadi G , Holmes JW . Anisotropic reinforcement of acute anteroapical infarcts improves pump function/clinical perspective. Circ Heart Fail 5: 515‐522, 2012.
 46. Fomovsky GM , Holmes JW . Evolution of scar structure, mechanics, and ventricular function after myocardial infarction in the rat. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 298: H221‐H228, 2010.
 47. Fomovsky GM , Rouillard AD , Holmes JW . Regional mechanics determine collagen fiber structure in healing myocardial infarcts. J Mol Cell Cardiol 52: 1083‐1090, 2012.
 48. Fomovsky GM , Thomopoulos S , Holmes JW . Contribution of extracellular matrix to the mechanical properties of the heart. J Mol Cell Cardiol 48: 490‐496, 2010.
 49. Fung YC . Biomechanics: Circulation. New York: Springer, 1997.
 50. Fung YC. Biomechanics: Mechanical Properties of Living Tissues. New York: Springer, 1993.
 51. Gajarsa J , Kloner R . Left ventricular remodeling in the post‐infarction heart: A review of cellular, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic modalities. Heart Fail Rev 16: 13‐21, 2011.
 52. Galie N , Hoeper MM , Humbert M , Torbicki A , Vachiery JL , Barbera JA , Beghetti M , Corris P , Gaine S , Gibbs JS , Gomez‐Sanchez MA , Jondeau G , Klepetko W , Opitz C , Peacock A , Rubin L , Zellweger M , Simonneau G . Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of pulmonary hypertension: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pulmonary Hypertension of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Respiratory Society (ERS), endorsed by the International Society of Heart and Lung Transplantation (ISHLT). Eur Heart J 30: 2493‐2537, 2009.
 53. Gao X‐M , Xu Q , Kiriazis H , Dart AM , Du X‐J . Mouse model of post‐infarct ventricular rupture: Time course, strain‐ and gender‐dependency, tensile strength, and histopathology. Cardiovasc Res 65: 469‐477, 2005.
 54. Gao XM , Ming ZQ , Su YD , Fang L , Kiriazis H , Xu Q , Dart AM , Du XJ . Infarct size and post‐infarct inflammation determine the risk of cardiac rupture in mice. Int J Cardiol 143: 20‐28, 2010.
 55. Ghaemi H , Behdinan K , Spence AD . In vitro technique in estimation of passive mechanical properties of bovine heart Part II. Constitutive relation and finite element analysis. Med Eng Phys 31: 83‐91, 2009.
 56. Gorcsan J, III , Tanaka H . Echocardiographic assessment of myocardial strain. J Am Coll Cardiol 58: 1401‐1413, 2011.
 57. Gorman R , Jackson B , Burdick J , Gorman J . Infarct restraint to limit adverse ventricular remodeling. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 4: 73‐81, 2011.
 58. Gorman RC , Jackson BM , Gorman JH , Edmunds LH . The mechanics of the fibrosed/remodeled heart. In: Villarreal FJ , editor. Interstitial Fibrosis in Heart Failure. New York: Springer, 2005, pp. 149‐163.
 59. Grabellus F , Levkau B , Sokoll A , Welp H , Schmid C , Deng MC , Takeda A , Breithardt G , Baba HA . Reversible activation of nuclear factor‐kappaB in human end‐stage heart failure after left ventricular mechanical support. Cardiovasc Res 53: 124‐130, 2002.
 60. Greenbaum RA , Ho SY , Gibson DG , Becker AE , Anderson RH . Left ventricular fibre architecture in man. Br Heart J 45: 248‐263, 1981.
 61. Grimes KM , Voorhees A , Chiao YA , Han HC , Lindsey ML , Buffenstein R . Cardiac function of the naked mole‐rat: Ecophysiological responses to working underground. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 306: H730‐737, 2014.
 62. Guccione JM , Costa KD , McCulloch AD . Finite element stress analysis of left ventricular mechanics in the beating dog heart. J Biomech 28: 1167‐1177, 1995.
 63. Guccione JM , Moonly SM , Moustakidis P , Costa KD , Moulton MJ , Ratcliffe MB , Pasque MK . Mechanism underlying mechanical dysfunction in the border zone of left ventricular aneurysm: A finite element model study. Ann Thorac Surg 71: 654‐662, 2001.
 64. Guerra M , Amorim MJ , Mota JC , Vouga L , Leite‐Moreira A . Rationale, design and methodology for Intraventricular Pressure Gradients Study: A novel approach for ventricular filling assessment in normal and falling hearts. J Cardiothorac Surg 6: 67, 2011.
 65. Gupta KB , Ratcliffe MB , Fallert MA , Edmunds LH, Jr , Bogen DK . Changes in passive mechanical stiffness of myocardial tissue with aneurysm formation. Circulation 89: 2315‐2326., 1994.
 66. Halper J . Proteoglycans and diseases of soft tissues. Adv Exp Med Biol 802: 49‐58, 2014.
 67. Han HC . An echocardiogram‐based 16‐segment model for predicting left ventricular ejection fraction improvement. J Theor Biol 228: 7‐15, 2004.
 68. Han HC , Lerakis S . The relation between viable segments and left ventricular ejection fraction improvement. J Med Eng Technol 28: 242‐253, 2004.
 69. Han HC , Martin RP , Lerakis G , Lerakis S . Prediction of the left ventricular ejection fraction improvement using echocardiography and mechanical modeling. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 18: 718‐721, 2005.
 70. Han HC , Oshinski JN , Ku DN , Pettigrew RI . A left ventricle model to predict post‐revascularization ejection fraction based on cine magnetic resonance images. J Biomech Eng 124: 52‐55, 2002.
 71. Hanft LM , Korte FS , McDonald KS . Cardiac function and modulation of sarcomeric function by length. Cardiovasc Res 77: 627‐636, 2008.
 72. Hariton I , deBotton G , Gasser T , Holzapfel G . Stress‐driven collagen fiber remodeling in arterial walls. Biomech Model Mechan 6: 163‐175, 2007.
 73. Haston WS , Shields JM , Wilkinson PC . The orientation of fibroblasts and neutrophils on elastic substrata. Exp Cell Res 146: 117‐126, 1983.
 74. Hayashidani S , Tsutsui H , Ikeuchi M , Shiomi T , Matsusaka H , Kubota T , Imanaka‐Yoshida K , Itoh T , Takeshita A . Targeted deletion of MMP‐2 attenuates early LV rupture and late remodeling after experimental myocardial infarction. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 285: H1229‐H1235, 2003.
 75. Healy LJ , Jiang Y , Hsu EW . Quantitative comparison of myocardial fiber structure between mice, rabbit, and sheep using diffusion tensor cardiovascular magnetic resonance. J Cardiov Magn Reson 13: 74, 2011.
 76. Hein S , Gaasch WH , Schaper J . Giant molecule titin and myocardial stiffness. Circulation 106: 1302‐1304, 2002.
 77. Herum KM , Lunde IG , Skrbic B , Florholmen G , Behmen D , Sjaastad I , Carlson CR , Gomez MF , Christensen G . Syndecan‐4 signaling via NFAT regulates extracellular matrix production and cardiac myofibroblast differentiation in response to mechanical stress. J Mol Cell Cardiol 54: 73‐81, 2013.
 78. Herzog JA , Leonard TR , Jinha A , Herzog W . Are titin properties reflected in single myofibrils? J Biomech 45: 1893‐1899, 2012.
 79. Heyde B , Bouchez S , Thieren S , Vandenheuvel M , Jasaityte R , Barbosa D , Claus P , Maes F , Wouters P , D'Hooge J . Elastic image registration to quantify 3‐D regional myocardial deformation from volumetric ultrasound: Experimental validation in an animal model. Ultrasound Med Biol 39: 1688‐1697, 2013.
 80. Hidalgo C , Hudson B , Bogomolovas J , Zhu Y , Anderson B , Greaser M , Labeit S , Granzier H . PKC Phosphorylation of Titin's PEVK Element. Circ Res 105: 631‐638, 2009.
 81. Hill MR , Simon MA , Valdez‐Jasso D , Zhang W , Champion HC , Sacks MS . Structural and mechanical adaptations of right ventricle free wall myocardium to pressure overload. Ann Biomed Eng 2014.
 82. Hoit BD , Shao Y , Tsai LM , Patel R , Gabel M , Walsh RA . Altered left atrial compliance after atrial appendectomy. Influence on left atrial and ventricular filling. Circ Res 72: 167‐175, 1993.
 83. Holmes JW , Borg TK , Covell JW . Structure and mechanics of healing myocardial infarcts. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 7: 223‐253, 2005.
 84. Holmes JW , Nunez JA , Covell JW . Functional implications of myocardial scar structure. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 272: H2123‐H2130, 1997.
 85. Hunter PJ , McCulloch AD , ter Keurs HE . Modeling the mechanical properties of cardiac muscle. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 69: 289‐331, 1996.
 86. Iskandrian AS , Heo J , Schelbert HR . Myocardial viability: Methods of assessment and clinical relevance. AM Heart J 132: 1226‐1235, 1996.
 87. Jannat RA , Robbins GP , Ricart BG , Dembo M , Hammer DA . Neutrophil adhesion and chemotaxis depend on substrate mechanics. J Phys Condens Matter 22: 194117, 2010.
 88. Jhun CS , Sun K , Cysyk JP . Continuous flow left ventricular pump support and its effect on regional left ventricular wall stress: Finite element analysis study. Med Biol Eng Comput 2014.
 89. Jiang K , Yu X . Quantification of regional myocardial wall motion by cardiovascular magnetic resonance. Quant Imaging Med Surg 4: 345‐357, 2014.
 90. Jin YF , Han HC , Berger J , Dai Q , Lindsey ML . Combining experimental and mathematical modeling to reveal mechanisms of macrophage‐dependent left ventricular remodeling. BMC Syst Biol 5, 2011.
 91. Kadler K . Matrix loading: Assembly of extracellular matrix collagen fibrils during embryogenesis. Birth Defects Research Part C: Embryo Today: Reviews 72: 1‐11, 2004.
 92. Kadler KE , Hill A , Canty‐Laird EG . Collagen fibrillogenesis: Fibronectin, integrins, and minor collagens as organizers and nucleators. Curr Opin Cell Biol 20: 495‐501, 2008.
 93. Kalogeropoulos AP , Georgiopoulou VV , Gheorghiade M , Butler J . Echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular structure and function: New modalities and potential applications in clinical trials. J Card Fail 18: 159‐172, 2012.
 94. Kania G , Blyszczuk P , Eriksson U . Mechanisms of cardiac fibrosis in inflammatory heart disease. Trends Cardiovasc Med 19: 247‐252, 2009.
 95. Kelley ST , Malekan R , Gorman JH, III , Jackson BM , Gorman RC , Suzuki Y , Plappert T , Bogen DK , Sutton MG , Edmunds LH, Jr . Restraining infarct expansion preserves left ventricular geometry and function after acute anteroapical infarction. Circulation 99: 135‐142, 1999.
 96. Khan A , Moe GW , Nili N , Rezaei E , Eskandarian M , Butany J , Strauss BH . The cardiac atria are chambers of active remodeling and dynamic collagen turnover during evolving heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 43: 68‐76, 2004.
 97. Kim YS , Galis ZS , Rachev A , Han HC , Vito RP . Matrix metalloproteinase‐2 and ‐9 are associated with high stresses predicted using a nonlinear heterogeneous model of arteries. J Biomech Eng 131: 011009, 2009.
 98. Kolaczkowska E , Kubes P . Neutrophil recruitment and function in health and inflammation. Nat Rev Immunol 13: 159‐175, 2013.
 99. Kortsmit J , Davies NH , Miller R , Macadangdang JR , Zilla P , Franz T . The effect of hydrogel injection on cardiac function and myocardial mechanics in a computational post‐infarction model. Comput Methods Biomech Biomed Engin 16: 1185‐1195, 2013.
 100. Krishnamurthy A , Villongco CT , Chuang J , Frank LR , Nigam V , Belezzuoli E , Stark P , Krummen DE , Narayan S , Omens JH , McCulloch AD , Kerckhoffs RC . Patient‐specific models of cardiac biomechanics. J Comput Phys 244: 4‐21, 2013.
 101. Kuznetsova T , Herbots L , Richart T , D'hooge J , Thijs L , Fagard RH , Herregods M‐C , Staessen JA . Left ventricular strain and strain rate in a general population. Eur Heart J 29: 2014‐2023, 2008.
 102. Lambert JM , Lopez EF , Lindsey ML . Macrophage roles following myocardial infarction. Int J Cardiol 130: 147‐158, 2008.
 103. Land S , Niederer SA , Aronsen JM , Espe EK , Zhang L , Louch WE , Sjaastad I , Sejersted OM , Smith NP . An analysis of deformation‐dependent electromechanical coupling in the mouse heart. J Physiol 590: 4553‐4569, 2012.
 104. Lanir Y . Osmotic swelling and residual stress in cardiovascular tissues. J Biomech 45: 780‐789, 2012.
 105. Lee AA , Delhaas T , McCulloch AD , Villarreal FJ . Differential responses of adult cardiac fibroblasts to in vitro biaxial strain patterns. J Mol Cell Cardiol 31: 1833‐1843, 1999.
 106. Lee LC , Ge L , Zhang Z , Pease M , Nikolic SD , Mishra R , Ratcliffe MB , Guccione JM . Patient‐specific finite element modeling of the Cardiokinetix Parachute((R)) device: Effects on left ventricular wall stress and function. Med Biol Eng Comput 52: 557‐566, 2014.
 107. Lemmon JD , Yoganathan AP . Computational modeling of left heart diastolic function: Examination of ventricular dysfunction. J Biomech Eng 122: 297‐303, 2000.
 108. Li S‐H , Sun Z , Guo L , Han M , Wood MFG , Ghosh N , Alex Vitkin I , Weisel RD , Li R‐K . Elastin overexpression by cell‐based gene therapy preserves matrix and prevents cardiac dilation. J Cell Mol Med 16: 2429‐2439, 2012.
 109. Li YY , Feng Y , McTiernan CF , Pei W , Moravec CS , Wang P , Rosenblum W , Kormos RL , Feldman AM . Downregulation of matrix metalloproteinases and reduction in collagen damage in the failing human heart after support with left ventricular assist devices. Circulation 104: 1147‐1152, 2001.
 110. Liang CS , Gavras H , Black J , Sherman LG , Hood WB, Jr . Renin‐angiotensin system inhibition in acute myocardial infarction in dogs. Effects on systemic hemodynamics, myocardial blood flow, segmental myocardial function and infarct size. Circulation 66: 1249‐1255, 1982.
 111. Lietz K , Miller LW . Left ventricular assist devices: Evolving devices and indications for use in ischemic heart disease. Curr Opin Cardiol 19: 613‐618, 2004.
 112. Lietz K , Miller LW . Will left‐ventricular assist device therapy replace heart transplantation in the foreseeable future? Curr Opin Cardiol 20: 132‐137, 2005.
 113. Lima JA , Jeremy R , Guier W , Bouton S , Zerhouni EA , McVeigh E , Buchalter MB , Weisfeldt ML , Shapiro EP , Weiss JL . Accurate systolic wall thickening by nuclear magnetic resonance imaging with tissue tagging: Correlation with sonomicrometers in normal and ischemic myocardium. J Am Coll Cardiol 21: 1741‐1751, 1993.
 114. Lin DH , Yin FC . A multiaxial constitutive law for mammalian left ventricular myocardium in steady‐state barium contracture or tetanus. J Biomech Eng 120: 504‐517, 1998.
 115. Lin J , Lopez EF , Jin Y , Van Remmen H , Bauch T , Han HC , Lindsey ML . Age‐related cardiac muscle sarcopenia: Combining experimental and mathematical modeling to identify mechanisms. Exp Gerontol 43: 296‐306, 2008.
 116. Linke WA . Sense and stretchability: The role of titin and titin‐associated proteins in myocardial stress‐sensing and mechanical dysfunction. Cardiovasc Res 77: 637‐648, 2008.
 117. Linke WA , Hamdani N . Gigantic business: Titin properties and function through thick and thin. Circ Res 114: 1052‐1068, 2014.
 118. Linke WA , Popov VI , Pollack GH . Passive and active tension in single cardiac myofibrils. Biophys J 67: 782‐792, 1994.
 119. Liu C , Feng P , Li X , Song J , Chen W . Expression of MMP‐2, MT1‐MMP, and TIMP‐2 by cultured rabbit corneal fibroblasts under mechanical stretch. Exp Biol Med (Maywood, NJ) 239: 907‐912, 2014.
 120. López‐Sendón J , Gurfinkel EP , Lopez de Sa E , Agnelli G , Gore JM , Steg PG , Eagle KA , Cantador JR , Fitzgerald G , Granger CB , Investigators ftGRoACE. Factors related to heart rupture in acute coronary syndromes in the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events. Eur Heart J 31: 1449‐1456, 2010.
 121. López B , González A , Hermida N , Valencia F , de Teresa E , Díez J . Role of lysyl oxidase in myocardial fibrosis: From basic science to clinical aspects. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 299: H1‐H9, 2010.
 122. Louch WE , Sheehan KA , Wolska BM . Methods in cardiomyocyte isolation, culture, and gene transfer. J Mol Cell Cardiol 51: 288‐298, 2011.
 123. Lund LH , Matthews J , Aaronson K . Patient selection for left ventricular assist devices. Eur J Heart Fail 12: 434‐443, 2010.
 124. Ma Y , Halade GV , Zhang J , Ramirez TA , Levin D , Voorhees AP , Jin YF , Han HC , Manicone AM , Lindsey M . Matrix metalloproteinase‐28 deletion exacerbates cardiac dysfunction and rupture following myocardial infarction in mice by inhibiting M2 macrophage activation. Circ Res 20: 20, 2012.
 125. Majkut S , Dingal PC , Discher DE . Stress sensitivity and mechanotransduction during heart development. Curr Biol 24: R495‐501, 2014.
 126. Makino A , Prossnitz ER , Bünemann M , Wang JM , Yao W , Schmid‐Schönbein GW . G protein‐coupled receptors serve as mechanosensors for fluid shear stress in neutrophils. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 290: C1633‐C1639, 2006.
 127. Makino A , Shin HY , Komai Y , Fukuda S , Coughlin M , Sugihara‐Seki M , Schmid‐Schonbein GW . Mechanotransduction in leukocyte activation: A review. Biorheology 44: 221‐249, 2007.
 128. Malhotra R , Sadoshima J , Brosius FC, III , Izumo S . Mechanical stretch and angiotensin II differentially upregulate the renin‐angiotensin system in cardiac myocytes In vitro. Circ Res 85: 137‐146, 1999.
 129. Marcucci C , Lauer R , Mahajan A . New echocardiographic techniques for evaluating left ventricular myocardial function. Semin Cardiothorac Vasc Anesth 12: 228‐247, 2008.
 130. Matsui Y , Morimoto J , Uede T . Role of matricellular proteins in cardiac tissue remodeling after myocardial infarction. World J Biol Chem 1: 69‐80, 2010.
 131. Maurer MS , Kronzon I , Burkhoff D . Ventricular pump function in heart failure with normal ejection fraction: insights from pressure‐volume measurements. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 49: 182‐195, 2006.
 132. McDonald KS . The interdependence of Ca2+ activation, sarcomere length, and power output in the heart. Pflugers Arch 462: 61‐67, 2011.
 133. McManus DD , Chinali M , Saczynski JS , Gore JM , Yarzebski J , Spencer FA , Lessard D , Goldberg RJ . 30‐year trends in heart failure in patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 107: 353‐359, 2011.
 134. McNally EM , Golbus JR , Puckelwartz MJ . Genetic mutations and mechanisms in dilated cardiomyopathy. J Clin Invest 123: 19‐26, 2013.
 135. McWhorter FY , Wang T , Nguyen P , Chung T , Liu WF . Modulation of macrophage phenotype by cell shape. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110: 17253‐17258, 2013.
 136. Merryman WD , Youn I , Lukoff HD , Krueger PM , Guilak F , Hopkins RA , Sacks MS . Correlation between heart valve interstitial cell stiffness and transvalvular pressure: implications for collagen biosynthesis. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 290: H224‐H231, 2006.
 137. Metra M , Bettari L , Carubelli V , Bugatti S , Dei Cas A , Del Magro F , Lazzarini V , Lombardi C , Dei Cas L . Use of inotropic agents in patients with advanced heart failure. Drugs 71: 515‐525, 2011.
 138. Mirsky I . Left ventricular stresses in the intact human heart. Biophys J 9: 189‐208, 1969.
 139. Mizuno T , Yau TM , Weisel RD , Kiani CG , Li RK . Elastin stabilizes an infarct and preserves ventricular function. Circulation 112: I81‐I88, 2005.
 140. Moore CC , McVeigh ER , Zerhouni EA . Noninvasive measurement of three‐dimensional myocardial deformation with tagged magnetic resonance imaging during graded local ischemia. J Cardiov Magn Reson 1: 207‐222, 1999.
 141. Mor‐Avi V , Lang RM , Badano LP , Belohlavek M , Cardim NM , Derumeaux G , Galderisi M , Marwick T , Nagueh SF , Sengupta PP , Sicari R , Smiseth OA , Smulevitz B , Takeuchi M , Thomas JD , Vannan M , Voigt JU , Zamorano JL . Current and evolving echocardiographic techniques for the quantitative evaluation of cardiac mechanics: ASE/EAE consensus statement on methodology and indications endorsed by the Japanese Society of Echocardiography. Eur J Echocardiogr 12: 167‐205, 2011.
 142. Moustakidis P , Maniar HS , Cupps BP , Absi T , Zheng J , Guccione JM , Sundt TM , Pasque MK . Altered left ventricular geometry changes the border zone temporal distribution of stress in an experimental model of left ventricular aneurysm: A finite element model study. Circulation 106: I168‐175, 2002.
 143. Mullins PD , Bondarenko VE . A mathematical model of the mouse ventricular myocyte contraction. Plos One 8: e63141, 2013.
 144. Nagueh SF , Appleton CP , Gillebert TC , Marino PN , Oh JK , Smiseth OA , Waggoner AD , Flachskampf FA , Pellikka PA , Evangelista A . Recommendations for the evaluation of left ventricular diastolic function by echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 22: 107‐133, 2009.
 145. Oishi S , Sasano T , Tateishi Y , Tamura N , Isobe M , Furukawa T . Stretch of atrial myocytes stimulates recruitment of macrophages via ATP released through gap‐junction channels. J Pharmacol Sci 120: 296‐304, 2012.
 146. Omens JH , Fung YC . Residual strain in rat left ventricle. Circ Res 66: 37‐45, 1990.
 147. Oshinski JN , Han HC , Ku DN , Pettigrew RI . Quantitative prediction of improvement in cardiac function after revascularization with MR imaging and modeling: Initial results. Radiology 221: 515‐522, 2001.
 148. Oya K , Sakamoto N , Sato M . Hypoxia suppresses stretch‐induced elongation and orientation of macrophages. Biomed Mater Eng 23: 463‐471, 2013.
 149. Ozaki Y , Imanishi T , Tanimoto T , Teraguchi I , Nishiguchi T , Orii M , Shiono Y , Shimamura K , Yamano T , Ino Y , Yamaguchi T , Kubo T , Akasaka T . Effect of direct renin inhibitor on left ventricular remodeling in patients with primary acute myocardial infarction. Int Heart J 55: 17‐21, 2014.
 150. Patel NR , Bole M , Chen C , Hardin CC , Kho AT , Mih J , Deng L , Butler J , Tschumperlin D , Fredberg JJ , Krishnan R , Koziel H . Cell elasticity determines macrophage function. Plos One 7: e41024, 2012.
 151. Patterson SW , Starling EH . On the mechanical factors which determine the output of the ventricles. J Physiol 48: 357‐379, 1914.
 152. Paulus WJ , Tschöpe C , Sanderson JE , Rusconi C , Flachskampf FA , Rademakers FE , Marino P , Smiseth OA , De Keulenaer G , Leite‐Moreira AF , Borbély A , Édes I , Handoko ML , Heymans S , Pezzali N , Pieske B , Dickstein K , Fraser AG , Brutsaert DL . How to diagnose diastolic heart failure: A consensus statement on the diagnosis of heart failure with normal left ventricular ejection fraction by the Heart Failure and Echocardiography Associations of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 28: 2539‐2550, 2007.
 153. Pavo N , Charwat S , Nyolczas N , Jakab A , Murlasits Z , Bergler‐Klein J , Nikfardjam M , Benedek I , Benedek T , Pavo IJ , Gersh BJ , Huber K , Maurer G , Gyongyosi M . Cell therapy for human ischemic heart diseases: Critical review and summary of the clinical experiences. J Mol Cell Cardiol 75C: 12‐24, 2014.
 154. Peterson KL , Tsuji J , Johnson A , DiDonna J , LeWinter M . Diastolic left ventricular pressure‐volume and stress‐strain relations in patients with valvular aortic stenosis and left ventricular hypertrophy. Circulation 58: 77‐89, 1978.
 155. Petroll WM , Ma L , Jester JV . Direct correlation of collagen matrix deformation with focal adhesion dynamics in living corneal fibroblasts. J Cell Sci 116: 1481‐1491, 2003.
 156. Pfeiffer ER , Tangney JR , Omens JH , McCulloch AD . Biomechanics of cardiac electromechanical coupling and mechanoelectric feedback. J Biomech Eng 136: 021007, 2014.
 157. Pinto JG , Fung YC . Mechanical properties of the heart muscle in the passive state. J Biomech 6: 597‐616, 1973.
 158. Pinto JG , Fung YC . Mechanical properties of the stimulated papillary muscle in quick‐release experiments. J Biomech 6: 617‐630, 1973.
 159. Rabbah JP , Saikrishnan N , Siefert AW , Santhanakrishnan A , Yoganathan AP . Mechanics of healthy and functionally diseased mitral valves: A critical review. J Biomech Eng 135: 021007, 2013.
 160. Rassier DE , Pavlov I . Contractile characteristics of sarcomeres arranged in series or mechanically isolated from myofibrils. Adv Exp Med Biol 682: 123‐140, 2010.
 161. Ren J , Wold LE . Measurement of cardiac mechanical function in isolated ventricular myocytes from rats and mice by computerized video‐based imaging. Biol Proced Online 3: 43‐53, 2001.
 162. Rice JJ , Wang F , Bers DM , de Tombe PP . Approximate model of cooperative activation and crossbridge cycling in cardiac muscle using ordinary differential equations. Biophys J 95: 2368‐2390, 2008.
 163. Rienks M , Papageorgiou A‐P , Frangogiannis NG , Heymans S . Myocardial extracellular matrix: an ever‐changing and diverse entity. Circ Res 114: 872‐888, 2014.
 164. Rouillard AD , Holmes JW . Coupled agent‐based and finite‐element models for predicting scar structure following myocardial infarction. Prog Biophys Mol Biol 2014.
 165. Rouillard AD , Holmes JW . Mechanical regulation of fibroblast migration and collagen remodeling in healing myocardial infarcts. J Physiol 2012.
 166. Sacks MS , Merryman WD , Schmidt DE . On the biomechanics of heart valve function. J Biomech 42: 1804‐1824, 2009.
 167. Sacks MS , Yoganathan AP . Heart valve function: A biomechanical perspective. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 362: 1369‐1391, 2007.
 168. Sagawa K . The ventricular pressure‐volume diagram revisited. Circ Res 43: 677‐687, 1978.
 169. Sarnoff SJ , Berglund E . Ventricular function: I. starling's law of the heart studied by means of simultaneous right and left ventricular function curves in the dog. Circulation 9: 706‐718, 1954.
 170. Schramm W . The units of measurement of the ventricular stroke work: A review study. J Clin Monit Comput 24: 213‐217, 2010.
 171. Segers P , Stergiopulos N , Schreuder JJ , Westerhof BE , Westerhof N . Left ventricular wall stress normalization in chronic pressure‐ overloaded heart: A mathematical model study. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 279: H1120‐1127, 2000.
 172. Senni M , Paulus WJ , Gavazzi A , Fraser AG , Díez J , Solomon SD , Smiseth OA , Guazzi M , Lam CSP , Maggioni AP , Tschöpe C , Metra M , Hummel SL , Edelmann F , Ambrosio G , Stewart Coats AJ , Filippatos GS , Gheorghiade M , Anker SD , Levy D , Pfeffer MA , Stough WG , Pieske BM . New strategies for heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: The importance of targeted therapies for heart failure phenotypes. Eur Heart J, 2014.
 173. Shadwick RE . Mechanical design in arteries. J Exp Biol 202: 3305‐3313, 1999.
 174. Shamhart PE , Meszaros JG . Non‐fibrillar collagens: Key mediators of post‐infarction cardiac remodeling? J Mol Cell Cardiol 48: 530‐537, 2010.
 175. Shi F , Harman J , Fujiwara K , Sottile J . Collagen I matrix turnover is regulated by fibronectin polymerization. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 298: C1265‐C1275, 2010.
 176. Shimazaki M , Nakamura K , Kii I , Kashima T , Amizuka N , Li M , Saito M , Fukuda K , Nishiyama T , Kitajima S , Saga Y , Fukayama M , Sata M , Kudo A . Periostin is essential for cardiac healingafter acute myocardial infarction. J Exp Med 205: 295‐303, 2008.
 177. Skrzypiec‐Spring M , Grotthus B , Szelag A , Schulz R . Isolated heart perfusion according to Langendorff—still viable in the new millennium. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 55: 113‐126, 2007.
 178. Stampehl MR , Mann DL , Nguyen JS , Cota F , Colmenares C , Dokainish H . Speckle strain echocardiography predicts outcome in patients with heart failure with both depressed and preserved left ventricular ejection fraction. Echocardiography, 2014.
 179. Taber LA . Biomechanics of cardiovascular development. Annu Rev Biomed Eng 3: 1‐25, 2001.
 180. Taber LA . Biophysical mechanisms of cardiac looping. Int J Dev Biol 50: 323‐332, 2006.
 181. Taber LA , Chabert S . Theoretical and experimental study of growth and remodeling in the developing heart. Biomech Model Mechan 1: 29‐43, 2002.
 182. Taber LA , Voronov DA , Ramasubramanian A . The role of mechanical forces in the torsional component of cardiac looping. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1188: 103‐110, 2010.
 183. Takeuchi M , Nakai H , Kokumai M , Nishikage T , Otani S , Lang RM . Age‐related changes in left ventricular twist assessed by two‐dimensional speckle‐tracking imaging. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 19: 1077‐1084, 2006.
 184. Tetsunaga T , Nishida K , Furumatsu T , Naruse K , Hirohata S , Yoshida A , Saito T , Ozaki T . Regulation of mechanical stress‐induced MMP‐13 and ADAMTS‐5 expression by RUNX‐2 transcriptional factor in SW1353 chondrocyte‐like cells. Osteoarthritis Cartilage 19: 222‐232, 2011.
 185. Thavendiranathan P , Poulin F , Lim KD , Plana JC , Woo A , Marwick TH . Use of myocardial strain imaging by echocardiography for the early detection of cardiotoxicity in patients during and after cancer chemotherapy: A systematic review. J Am Coll Cardiol 63: 2751‐2768, 2014.
 186. Thebault C , Donal E , Bernard A , Moreau O , Schnell F , Mabo P , Leclercq C . Real‐time three‐dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography: A novel technique to quantify global left ventricular mechanical dyssynchrony. Eur J Echocardiogr 12: 26‐32, 2011.
 187. Thomas KL , Velazquez EJ . Therapies to prevent heart failure post‐myocardial infarction. Curr Heart Fail Rep 2: 174‐182, 2005.
 188. Tobita K , Garrison JB , Liu LJ , Tinney JP , Keller BB . Three‐dimensional myofiber architecture of the embryonic left ventricle during normal development and altered mechanical loads. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol 283: 193‐201, 2005.
 189. Trayanova NA , Rice JJ . Cardiac electromechanical models: from cell to organ. Front Physiol 2: 2011.
 190. Tromp J , van der Pol A , Klip IT , de Boer RA , Jaarsma T , van Gilst WH , Voors AA , van Veldhuisen DJ , van der Meer P . Fibrosis marker syndecan‐1 and outcome in patients with heart failure with reduced and preserved ejection fraction. Circ Heart Fail 7: 457‐462, 2014.
 191. Vieira MJ , Teixeira R , Goncalves L , Gersh BJ . Left atrial mechanics: Echocardiographic assessment and clinical implications. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 27: 463‐478, 2014.
 192. Villarreal FJ , Dillmann WH . Cardiac hypertrophy‐induced changes in mRNA levels for TGF‐beta 1, fibronectin, and collagen. Am J Physiol 262: H1861‐1866, 1992.
 193. Voelkel NF , Quaife RA , Leinwand LA , Barst RJ , McGoon MD , Meldrum DR , Dupuis J , Long CS , Rubin LJ , Smart FW , Suzuki YJ , Gladwin M , Denholm EM , Gail DB . Right ventricular function and failure: Report of a national heart, lung, and blood institute working group on cellular and molecular mechanisms of right heart failure. Circulation 114: 1883‐1891, 2006.
 194. Voorhees A , DeLeon KY , Ma Y , Halade GV , Yabluchanskiy A , Lindsey ML , Han HC . Cardiac Mechanics in Matrix Metalloproteinase‐9 Null Mice Post‐Myocardial Infarction. BMES Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA, 2013.
 195. Voorhees A , Han H‐C . A model to determine the effect of collagen fiber alignment on heart function post myocardial infarction. Theor Biol Med Model 11: 6, 2014.
 196. Wagenseil JE , Mecham RP . Vascular extracellular matrix and arterial mechanics. Physiol Rev 89: 957‐989, 2009.
 197. Waldman LK , Nosan D , Villarreal F , Covell JW . Relation between transmural deformation and local myofiber direction in canine left ventricle. Circ Res 63: 550‐562, 1988.
 198. Walker JC , Ratcliffe MB , Zhang P , Wallace AW , Hsu EW , Saloner DA , Guccione JM . Magnetic resonance imaging‐based finite element stress analysis after linear repair of left ventricular aneurysm. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 135: 1094‐U1057, 2008.
 199. Wall ST , Guccione JM , Ratcliffe MB , Sundnes JS . Electromechanical feedback with reduced cellular connectivity alters electrical activity in an infarct injured left ventricle: A finite element model study. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 302: H206‐214, 2012.
 200. Wang B , Wang G , To F , Butler JR , Claude A , McLaughlin RM , Williams LN , de Jongh Curry AL , Liao J . Myocardial scaffold‐based cardiac tissue engineering: Application of coordinated mechanical and electrical stimulations. Langmuir 29: 11109‐11117, 2013.
 201. Wang BW , Hung HF , Chang H , Kuan P , Shyu KG . Mechanical stretch enhances the expression of resistin gene in cultured cardiomyocytes via tumor necrosis factor‐alpha. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 293: H2305‐H2312, 2007.
 202. Wang HM , Gao H , Luo XY , Berry C , Griffith BE , Ogden RW , Wang TJ . Structure‐based finite strain modelling of the human left ventricle in diastole. Int J Numer Method Biomed Eng 29: 83‐103, 2013.
 203. Wang HM , Luo XY , Gao H , Ogden RW , Griffith BE , Berry C , Wang TJ . A modified Holzapfel‐Ogden law for a residually stressed finite strain model of the human left ventricle in diastole. Biomech Model Mechan 13: 99‐113, 2014.
 204. Warwick R , Pullan M , Poullis M . Mathematical modelling to identify patients who should not undergo left ventricle remodelling surgery. Interact Cardiovasc Thorac Surg 10: 661‐665, 2010.
 205. Weber KT , Sun Y , Tyagi SC , Cleutjens JP . Collagen network of the myocardium: Function, structural remodeling and regulatory mechanisms. J Mol Cell Cardiol 26: 279‐292, 1994.
 206. Weis SM , Zimmerman SD , Shah M , Covell JW , Omens JH , Ross Jr J , Dalton N , Jones Y , Reed CC , Iozzo RV , McCulloch AD . A role for decorin in the remodeling of myocardial infarction. Matrix Biol 24: 313‐324, 2005.
 207. Wenk JF , Eslami P , Zhang Z , Xu C , Kuhl E , Gorman JH, III , Robb JD , Ratcliffe MB , Gorman RC , Guccione JM . A novel method for quantifying the in‐vivo mechanical effect of material injected into a myocardial infarction. Ann Thorac Surg 92: 935‐941, 2011.
 208. Wildgruber M , Bielicki I , Aichler M , Kosanke K , Feuchtinger A , Settles M , Onthank DC , Cesati RR , Robinson SP , Huber AM , Rummeny EJ , Walch AK , Botnar RM . Assessment of myocardial infarction and postinfarction scar remodeling with an elastin‐specific magnetic resonance agent. Circ Cardiovasc Imag 7: 321‐329, 2014.
 209. Windecker S , Kolh P , Alfonso F , Collet JP , Cremer J , Falk V , Filippatos G , Hamm C , Head SJ , Juni P , Kappetein AP , Kastrati A , Knuuti J , Landmesser U , Laufer G , Neumann FJ , Richter DJ , Schauerte P , Sousa Uva M , Stefanini GG , Taggart DP , Torracca L , Valgimigli M , Wijns W , Witkowski A . ESC/EACTS Guidelines on myocardial revascularization: The Task Force on Myocardial Revascularization of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for Cardio‐Thoracic Surgery (EACTS) Developed with the special contribution of the European Association of Percutaneous Cardiovascular Interventions (EAPCI). Eur J Cardiothorac Surg 46: 517‐592, 2014.
 210. Wood P , Piran S , Liu PP . Diastolic heart failure: Progress, treatment challenges, and prevention. Can J Cardiol 27: 302‐310, 2011.
 211. Yabluchanskiy A , Ma Y , Chiao YA , Lopez EF , Voorhees AP , Toba H , Hall ME , Han H‐C , Lindsey ML , Jin Y‐F . Cardiac aging is initiated by matrix metalloproteinase‐9 mediated endothelial dysfunction. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 2014.
 212. Yabluchanskiy A , Ma Y , Deleon‐Pennell K , Jin Y‐F , Lindsey M . Matrix metalloproteinase‐9 deletion shifts macrophage polarization towards M2 phenotype in aged left ventricles post‐myocardial infarction. Cardiovasc Res 103: S6, 2014.
 213. Yamakawa M , Kyo S , Yamakawa S , Ono M , Kinugawa K , Nishimura T . Destination therapy: The new gold standard treatment for heart failure patients with left ventricular assist devices. Gen Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 61: 111‐117, 2013.
 214. Yamashita O , Yoshimura K , Nagasawa A , Ueda K , Morikage N , Ikeda Y , Hamano K . Periostin links mechanical strain to inflammation in abdominal aortic aneurysm. Plos One 8: e79753, 2013.
 215. Yambe M , Tomiyama H , Hirayama Y , Gulniza Z , Takata Y , Koji Y , Motobe K , Yamashina A . Arterial stiffening as a possible risk factor for both atherosclerosis and diastolic heart failure. Hypertens Res 27: 625‐631, 2004.
 216. Yancy CW , Jessup M , Bozkurt B , Butler J , Casey DE, Jr , Drazner MH , Fonarow GC , Geraci SA , Horwich T , Januzzi JL , Johnson MR , Kasper EK , Levy WC , Masoudi FA , McBride PE , McMurray JJ , Mitchell JE , Peterson PN , Riegel B , Sam F , Stevenson LW , Tang WH , Tsai EJ , Wilkoff BL , American College of Cardiology F, and American Heart Association Task Force on Practice G. 2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure: A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol 62: e147‐239, 2013.
 217. Yang T , Chiao YA , Wang Y , Voorhees A , Han HC , Lindsey ML , Jin YF . Mathematical modeling of left ventricular dimensional changes in mice during aging. BMC Syst Biol 6: 1752‐0509, 2012.
 218. Yarbrough WM , Mukherjee R , Ikonomidis JS , Zile MR , Spinale FG . Myocardial remodeling with aortic stenosis and after aortic valve replacement: Mechanisms and future prognostic implications. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 143: 656‐664, 2012.
 219. Yin Z , Ren J , Guo W . Sarcomeric protein isoform transitions in cardiac muscle: A journey to heart failure. Biochim Biophys Acta 1852: 47‐52, 2015.
 220. Yu Q , Vazquez R , Zabadi S , Watson RR , Larson DF . T‐lymphocytes mediate left ventricular fibrillar collagen cross‐linking and diastolic dysfunction in mice. Matrix Biol 29: 511‐518, 2010.
 221. Zamilpa R , Lindsey ML . Extracellular matrix turnover and signaling during cardiac remodeling following MI: Causes and consequences. J Mol Cell Cardiol 48: 558‐563, 2010.
 222. Zhang Y , Lin Z , Foolen J , Schoen I , Santoro A , Zenobi‐Wong M , Vogel V . Disentangling the multifactorial contributions of fibronectin, collagen and cyclic strain on MMP expression and extracellular matrix remodeling by fibroblasts. Matrix Biol 2014.
 223. Zhang Z , Tendulkar A , Sun K , Saloner DA , Wallace AW , Ge L , Guccione JM , Ratcliffe MB . Comparison of the young‐laplace law and finite element based calculation of ventricular wall stress: implications for postinfarct and surgical ventricular remodeling. Ann Thorac Surg 91: 150‐156, 2011.
 224. Zhong J , Liu W , Yu X . Characterization of three‐dimensional myocardial deformation in the mouse heart: An MR tagging study. J Magn Reson Imaging 27: 1263‐1270, 2008.
 225. Zile MR , Baicu CF . Biomarkers of diastolic dysfunction and myocardial fibrosis: Application to heart failure with a preserved ejection fraction. J Cardiovasc Transl Res 6: 501‐515, 2013.
 226. Zile MR , Cowles MK , Buckley JM , Richardson K , Cowles BA , Baicu CF , Cooper GI , Gharpuray V . Gel stretch method: A new method to measure constitutive properties of cardiac muscle cells. Am J Physiol 274: H2188‐H2202, 1998.
 227. Zile MR , Richardson K , Cowles MK , Buckley JM , Koide M , Cowles BA , Gharpuray V , Cooper Gt . Constitutive properties of adult mammalian cardiac muscle cells. Circulation 98: 567‐579, 1998.
 228. Zimmer HG . The isolated perfused heart and its pioneers. News Physiol Sci 13: 203‐210, 1998.

Related Articles:

A Modern View of Heart Failure: Practical Applications of Cardiovascular Physiology
Cellular Basis of Physiological and Pathological Myocardial Growth
Ultrastructure of the Heart
Systolic and Diastolic Function (Mechanics) of the Intact Heart

Contact Editor

Submit a note to the editor about this article by filling in the form below.

* Required Field

Article Title: Biomechanics of Cardiac Function
 

How to Cite

Andrew P. Voorhees, Hai‐Chao Han. Biomechanics of Cardiac Function. Compr Physiol 2015, 5: 1623-1644. doi: 10.1002/cphy.c140070